Specifically, cloisonne enamel was the most common in the Jingtai and Chenghua periods of Ming Dynasty, and then the technological level dropped significantly. Cloisonne in the Qing Dynasty is thinner than that in the Ming Dynasty, with thin threads and bright colored glaze. Although the products in Qianlong period can't be compared with Jingtai and Chenghua periods, they are by no means inferior to those after Hongzhi and Zhengde. At the beginning of the 20th century, the overall production level of cloisonne was not as good as that of the previous generation. The body is thin.
Since the introduction of enamel painting technology into China, it has been developed in three generations: Kang, Yong and Gan. Three generations of works have their own characteristics in modeling, glaze color, ornamentation and inscriptions. The enamel paintings in Kangxi period were bright and clean, and the decoration was mainly sketched flowers and patterned flowers. In Yongzheng period, the enamel paintings were made neatly and the black glaze was bright, which surpassed the decorative trend of enamel paintings in Kang, Gan and Long periods.
As an art collection, enamel attracts a large number of collectors. Cloisonne is the main object of collection. Cloisonne collection, we refer to the cloisonne hand-made in the late Qing Dynasty and before the late Qing Dynasty. At that time, every process of cloisonne craft had high requirements. In addition, after ten years of catastrophe, there are almost no cloisonne before the end of the Qing Dynasty in China. There is a clear contrast between the rare existence and the broad market demand. There is room for appreciation. Besides, cloisonne ware on the market now is much cheaper than Jingdezhen official kiln porcelain at the same time, so the appreciation potential is relatively greater.
In ancient China, because the enamel ware originated from a big food country (big food was a general term for Arab countries in China during the Tang and Song Dynasties), it originated from the Persian transliteration that Arabs were called Taz. There is a big food in Bai (66 1-749), with Damascus as its capital, which is called Umayyad Dynasty. There is a big black food (749- 1 158). Baghdad is the capital. It is called the Abbasid dynasty. After 9 10 came the Fatima dynasty with Cairo as its capital. After Abbasi dynasty, it came from Seljuk dynasty (1 158- 1258). Therefore, it is called "the great food kiln". Ghost Township Kiln ". Later, because of the inconsistency in translation, many different ways of writing appeared, such as "Franco Mosaic". [Ghost Country Mosaic]. [flange].
A, the classification of enamel technology
There are many kinds of enamel techniques, which are generally divided into two categories according to the manufacturing methods and tire types.
1. According to the production method, it can be roughly divided into silk enamel, filling enamel (that is, embedding enamel) and painting enamel.
Cloisonne and inlaid enamel have appeared in China for a long time. Historical records can be traced back to the Song and Yuan Dynasties. But the real domestic production should be Genghis Khan's attack on the Yuan Dynasty, taking the craftsmen captured there back to make and introducing the technology into the Central Plains. In the Ming Dynasty, cloisonne was widely produced and applied in Yongxuan Palace. Jingtai period is the most famous, which is what people call "cloisonne". Later, painted enamel appeared. It was in Europe in the middle of the fifteenth century. At the end of France, on the basis of adding enamel technology in limoges, it developed into an important town for painting enamel. With the trade between China and the West, it was introduced to China from Guangzhou and other ports. At that time, it was called "western enamel" or "foreign enamel". The production of palace painting enamel in Qing Dynasty didn't begin until the thirty-second year of Kangxi, when the enamel factory and glass factory were established.
2. According to the types of tires, enamelware can be generally divided into gold tire enamel, copper tire enamel, porcelain tire enamel, glass tire enamel, purple sand tire enamel and so on. Among them, copper tire enamel is the most widely used, because copper material is easy to combine with surface enamel and the price of copper material is relatively acceptable. Today, the majority of enamel is made of copper tires. Gold tires are difficult to be accepted by ordinary people because of their high cost. By the Qing dynasty, it was basically restricted. ). As the name implies, it is to paint enamel on a porcelain tire. It is a perfect combination of porcelain and painted enamel production technology. The production requirements for both are very high. So start late and mature late. When the palace is making porcelain tires, it also makes glass tires and purple sand tires. The production time of the three should be roughly the same. Only purple sand tires (only intrauterine enamel) are Kangxi's products.
2. The production of Kangxi enamel porcelain
1. Production facilities
To make painted enamel in the palace, we must first have a production facility-enamel factory. The enamel works in Kangxi period mainly include Wuying Palace (abolished in the 57th year of Kangxi), hall of mental cultivation, Yuanmingyuan and so on. Due to lack of information. At that time, the production scale could not be verified temporarily.
2. Historical materials
The earlier historical data of Kangxi enamel painting are as follows: [September, 55 1 1 day: Chen Yuanlong, governor of Guangxi (Chen Yuanlong (1652- 1736)), whose real name was Guangling, called Guangling Guo Xiang, also known as Haining Guo Xiang, and Guo Xiang (prime minister) in Qing Dynasty. He hopes to be awarded the throne.
On September 28th, Shen Kang, Governor of Guangdong Province, paid a memorial service: [Pan Chun, a Cantonese, can burn flanges. His slave trade has been proved. Now there's another man who can burn Yang Shiqi, Fran. Compared with Pan, he can also help Pan Chun to be a slave and donate money to settle down. On September 26th, .................................................................................. handed over the musical instruments imported from Flange and the red copper mixed gold prepared by Pan Chun to Li for replacement. Some were beaten into unpainted and unburned golden cups and handed over to Jae-il Lee for trial. "
The picture involves [Pan Chun]. In the person I mentioned: [(Guang Cai) 65438+in the middle and late 7th century, most of them used nine kinds of pigments, such as multicolored (dry red), hemp (dark red and black ochre), black gold and enamel moonlight white, yellow and pink green. Later, Pan Chun developed pink (golden red), which enriched the color of enamel. "
What needs to be mentioned here is that Guangzhou was the only gateway to the outside world in the Qing Dynasty. Many foreigners entered China through this. Therefore, the level of enamel production in Guangzhou is very high, which occupies an important position in China. Most of the enamel craftsmen in the palace were selected by Guangdong Customs and called "Southern Xinjiang". After the palace hall stopped making enamel porcelain in the late Qianlong period, it became the production point of enamel porcelain and still made enamel porcelain.
Judging from the data produced by Kangxi enamel, it is speculated that there will be more relevant data after 55 years. It is likely that enamel production has matured in this period. In June of the fifty-seventh year of Kangxi, Guangxi Taishou Zuo received a royal enamel snuff bottle. Zuo called it "exquisite, unparalleled and gorgeous"
On June 24th, 2008, Lynn Yang, Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, mentioned in his memorial that he sent Chen Zhongxin, an enamel painter, to the palace. [On May 12 this year, French surgeon An Tai and another Chen Zhongxin who can burn enamel arrived. The slave owner and the governor jointly reported it, and on June 18, he sent someone to Beijing for the record ... "
The real historical data of porcelain enamel can be referred to: Cao Fu (son of Cao Yin), February 2, 59, Shen Kang. Zhu Pi in the memorial hall. Yu Cao Yin: [Recently, there are many chores in your family, such as enamel and porcelain. After arriving in Beijing, it was sent to the imperial court for viewing and then burned. Now I don't know how many porcelains I cheated. I never knew ... "During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, because the production of enamel was still immature, enamel could not be directly painted on the glaze of porcelain tires, but on plain tires. It was painted enamel. From the floating beam (Jingdezhen, called "floating beam" because of the bridge) down the Yangtze River, into Poyang Lake, through Jiujiang Pass, through jiangning house (Nanjing), and then along the Grand Canal north into Beijing. Cao Yin is the coating of Xuan Ye Jia (slave) from his ancestors. At that time, many important positions in weaving and customs were entrusted by the rulers to manage their own coatings. The Cao family lived in Jiangning for three generations and was good at weaving and porcelain, which may involve imperial factory enamel.
According to historical records: [591the fifth day of February, Emperor Kangxi gave two bowls of enamel to western envoys. "There is no conclusive information about these bowls.
3. Kangxi enamel porcelain tire
The enamel painting of porcelain tires in Kangxi period did not mature until the end of the reign. The main reason should be related to the production process of enamel painting. For example, Pan Chun, who went to Beijing in 1955, and Chen Zhongxin, who went to Beijing in 1958, mentioned above, burn enamel, but they only refer to copper tires and glass tires. Porcelain tires are the first in the palace. There are no other examples before. Therefore, with the skills of this period, enamel color can be painted on purple sand (Figure 1.2). It is difficult to adhere to the glaze of porcelain tire. Purple sand tires are similar to porcelain tires. Combining with enamel glaze is reasonable in theory. Therefore, the porcelain tires painted during the Kangxi period are basically porcelain tires with glaze inside and no glaze outside. If you look at the porcelain painted by the Kangxi dynasty, you will find that the enamel color is not directly painted on the glaze except for the magnetic tires painted with diamond-shaped discs (Figure 3).
4. The difference between the use of [imperial system] and [annual system] during the Kangxi period.
The early Kangxi imperial kiln porcelain did not fall into Kangxi style because of the unsatisfactory production of imperial kiln porcelain. It was not until the production reached a certain level that it began to fall into the [annual style] style. Judging from the existing Kangxi imperial kiln porcelain, the "Nianshi" style is the official kiln porcelain produced by the Ministry of Industry in Jingdezhen Imperial Factory, which basically belongs to the "limited" style. This kind of porcelain has a wide range of uses, including daily use, ornamental and court use. From the comparison of existing products, it is found that even the cloisonne made by the court manufacturing office uses [year system] (device 9) instead of [imperial system]. Compared with the official kiln porcelain made by imperial factory, the enamel produced by manufacturing is more difficult, more expensive and relatively precious. In particular, painted enamel made of enamel belongs to a new technology. Compared with cloisonne, which has existed in large quantities since the Ming Dynasty, ..
5. The shape of Kangxi enamel porcelain
Because the Kangxi period was the research and production period of porcelain tire painting enamel, there were relatively few shapes of porcelain tire painting enamel during the Kangxi period. At present, the known types of porcelain tire painting enamel during the Kangxi period are:
1. diamond plate (Yongle kiln, case 3),
2. Bowl (basically made of 【 unglazed inside and unglazed outside 】 porcelain, with 4.5.8 kinds of utensils, etc. ),
3. Cup (container 6),
4. Small lid boxes and others.
Abstract of intransitive verbs
Since the reign of Kangxi was the initial period of enamel porcelain in Qing Dynasty, there were great limitations in glaze, modeling and manufacturing technology, so the types of enamel porcelain in Kangxi were slightly monotonous compared with those in Gan Yong.
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There are three main ways to identify enamel utensils. First, textual research of historical documents; Second, scientific detection means; Third, identify by comparing the styles of the times. The first two methods are more complicated, and the third one is often used. The comparative appraisal of the style of the times generally focuses on style, fetal bone and style, decorative patterns, enamel color glaze and so on.
1. Kuanzhi
There are three calligraphy styles of cloisonne in Ming and Qing dynasties and cloisonne in the second generation: casting chisel, cloisonne and seal cutting. During Xuande period in Ming Dynasty, there were three styles of calligraphy: casting chisel, double hook and enamel firing. There are two styles of calligraphy: regular script and seal script. Among them, regular script accounts for the vast majority. The number of words is "Xuande Year System". 【 Xuande year system, some are located at the bottom of the vessel, and some are engraved on the mouth edge, lid edge or inner edge of the vessel. The calligraphy style is solemn and beautiful, similar to the metal utensils and porcelain of the same period.
There are too many imitation models of Jingtai in Ming Dynasty. At present, it is uncertain which model can be used as the standard model. The casting money, seal script money, imitation song style money and Ssangyong embracing money are all considered as counterfeit money and can be excluded. At present, some researchers think it can be used as a genuine model of Jingtai. However, this is only a logical reasoning. We can't draw conclusions in vain.
Ming Jiajing six-character regular script, two lines engraved in Yin.
During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, the style of clockwork enamel was double hook clockwork (some words were filled with enamel glaze inside and outside). The characters are all in six-character regular script [Ming Wanli System] or [Ming Wanli System]. Especially a certain year is the unique style of this period. The sequence of characters is straight, straight or horizontal.
In the Qing Dynasty, there were various styles of cloisonne porcelain. Patterns are made by casting, carving and hollowing out. The styles of calligraphy are Kai, Yin and Imitation of Song Dynasty (Imitation of Song Dynasty began in Qianlong period). Most of them are regular script, with four characters and six characters. Box columns are mostly regular boxes and long boxes.
2. Fetal bones and models
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the general trend of fetal bone and wire cutters was that the fetal bone was slightly thicker in the early Ming Dynasty and thinner in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. The fetal bones were thick in Qing dynasty and thin in late Qing dynasty. But in the Qing Dynasty, this phenomenon basically disappeared because of the improvement of copper purity and firing and polishing technology. The gilding wares of the Ming Dynasty were thin and often worn out. By the Qing Dynasty, especially during the Qianlong period, the gold plating technology was far superior.
The size and shape of the second generation cloisonne enamelware in Ming and Qing dynasties are from small to large, from simple to complex, from display and sacrifice to ornamental and practical.
3. Decorative patterns
During the Ming and Qing dynasties, there were many kinds of decorative patterns on silk figures, and they also went through a process from simple to complex. Take the lotus pattern with branches as an example. At the end of Yuan Dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, there were many flowers and big leaves. Branches and vines stretch out very long. All the lines are outlined by one line. Branches and leaves are connected in series, and several blooming flowers are dotted among them. The flowers are full, the petals are short and full, and the flower heart is often peach-shaped. In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, the petals tended to be sharp and thin, and the flower heart often showed a "laurel" shape or a wishful shape. In the Qing Dynasty, the lotus vines tied with branches were curved, dense and regular, and very patterned. The outline is basically outlined with double lines. The free and easy charm of the Ming dynasty no longer exists.
4. Enamel glaze
At the end of Yuan Dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, cloisonne had delicate enamel, pure color and crystal clear. Usually, it is made of light blue, with red, yellow, white, green, purple and dark blue glazes. From the late Xuande period of Ming Dynasty, the glaze color was slightly gloomy and the gloss decreased. During this period, the color of cloisonne was not only light blue, but also sapphire blue was widely used. During the Wanli period, light blue appeared.
There are many kinds of enamel glazes in Qing Dynasty. There are dozens of colored glazes used, but they have one thing in common. Are opaque.
Another feature of enamel color glaze is surface trachoma, which is caused by excessive borate content and oxidation-reduction during firing. Craftsmen often use the method of "wax repair" to remedy it, that is, adding colored powder to wax to make colored wax and filling it in trachoma. In Qianlong period, trachoma was eliminated by improving technology.
Cloisonne, with its distinctive national style and gorgeous artistic style, is unique in the world cloisonne enamel technology. Those specious cloisonne imitations, whether in material, texture or artistic style, are not comparable to cloisonne in Ming and Qing Dynasties. As long as you are familiar with the production characteristics of cloisonne in Ming and Qing dynasties, you can judge its authenticity at a glance.