Content words in classical Chinese include nouns, words, adjectives, numerals and quantifiers. The number of notional words in classical Chinese is more than function words. When learning classical Chinese, we should master the meanings of substantive words in classical Chinese, master a certain number of classical Chinese meanings and accumulate knowledge of classical Chinese vocabulary, so as to read classical Chinese smoothly. When learning classical Chinese, we should pay special attention to the following points:
1 Pay attention to distinguish the similarities and differences between ancient and modern meanings.
The development of the right generation of China people has changed its meaning today. Some basic words have little meaning, and their meanings have not changed in ancient and modern times. It is difficult for me to learn classical Chinese. Although some words are used with the disappearance of old things and old ideas, the changes of ancient and modern meanings are mainly manifested in four aspects:
(1) semantic extension
Word meaning expansion refers to the expansion of the scope of the objective things reflected by the word meaning, that is, from the local whole to the narrow sense and broad sense, so that the extension of the original meaning and the new meaning extends from the season to the whole; Sleep refers to the sleep caused by sitting and dozing off.
(2) semantic contraction
The contraction of word meaning refers to the narrowing of the scope of objective things reflected by word meaning, that is, the whole is from wide to narrow, which expands the original meaning of new meaning. Ex.: Husband refers to the male husband in ancient China, and he has less pity. Husband generally refers to the bad smell of spouse, fishy soup generally refers to hot water, and water generally refers to vegetable soup and broth.
(3) Meaning transfer
The transfer of meaning means that the meaning of a word has changed from a nail to a second thing. In ancient times, it meant that the seeker thought carefully and took it carefully ("going to the mountain king"). Now it means that the elder sister in ancient times refers to the late marriage or the late marriage of powerful families, and the background has changed. Its meaning basically became the name of a beautiful sister.
(4) The meaning of words changes in color. For example, slanderous remarks referring to the public and accusing others of losing their sexuality can be slandered. People who have no ears in the city will be rewarded. Zou Ji satirized the King of Qi. Now it is used to slander and refer to other bad derogatory terms.
Four situations: the main types of changes in ancient and modern meanings, the number of ancient and modern meanings, the relationship between different words, and the main obstacles in classical Chinese learning. I must master the meaning of words and phrases in combination with the purpose, plan and requirements of studying classical Chinese works.
2. Pay attention to monosyllabic words and polysyllabic words in ancient and modern Chinese.
Modern Chinese disyllabic words account for the vast majority of monosyllabic words in classical Chinese. It should be wrong to read disyllabic words in classical Chinese. An example of disyllabic words in modern Chinese is Buwei (You Bao Chan Shan). Two words are not ancient: synonymous adverbs of degree. In addition, the explanation of disyllabic words in classical Chinese should be given. Example: The word "Feng Wanzhen" can be interpreted from the general meaning, the slight meaning and the relationship between the two words.
Pay attention to the phenomenon of word meaning in ancient Chinese.
The phenomenon of classical Chinese meaning in modern Chinese: I know the meaning of a word or two. Reading classical Chinese can easily explain one or two meanings and avoid mistakes in understanding. I want to accumulate and organize knowledge consciously. Every classical Chinese in my textbook will have exercises to help me accumulate and organize. I must seriously ignore the accumulation of meaning and choose meaning more accurately. In addition, I need to understand the original meaning of words, that is, the original meaning of each word changes with the development of society, which leads to new meanings: my wife grasps the present meaning with her hand, which means my husband Sun Guyi expresses me.
4. Pay attention to the phenomenon of interchangeable words.
The common use of ancient Chinese characters in classical Chinese is that some words are often used instead of others, which is called the common use of commonly used words; The sooner you identify the interchangeable words, the more difficult it is to read the interchangeable words in classical Chinese, and the more difficult it is for beginners to master the interchangeable words, so as to read classical Chinese works and consult dictionaries to accumulate knowledge.
Several problems in learning function words in classical Chinese.
Function words in classical Chinese include adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary words and exclamatory pronouns. The lexical meaning of function words in classical Chinese is abstract, which has language functions such as expressing mood and organizing content words. Function words are frequently used in classical Chinese, so we can have a better understanding of reading classical Chinese and fully understand the meaning of function words. The misunderstanding of function words affects the whole sentence and even the whole article. I should pay attention to several problems.
1 Clear function words
Function words in classical Chinese are derived from the basic meaning of notional words ... or ... as structural auxiliary words. The basic meanings of function words are fuzzy pronouns, auxiliary words and modal particles. Modern Chinese uses function words as pronouns, while modern Chinese abolishes the independence of subject and predicate, and uses words to piece together the mood. To give some examples, we need to know the specific language environment of a notional function word to determine its basic principle: the separation of words from words and sentences.
2. Solve the differences between ancient and modern function words
I want to grasp the meaning of ancient times. I want to use six theories to solve the story of death. Some function words are used in both ancient and modern times. As for subversion, I need to pay special attention to the similarities and differences. I want to review them word by word with an analytical eye.
3. Discrimination of the same function words with the same usage
Function words in classical Chinese are frequently used, and function words that have changed in spirit are often used as conjunctions to express the relationship between languages. As a pronoun and a conjunction, it means juxtaposition, deviation, inheritance, progression and turning point.
Observe the function words that express the same emotion
In ancient times, function words, words, and language were helpful for reading function words to express feelings, which was very important. Classical Chinese has no function words, lost its temperament and strength. If you use function words to express modesty and imply complaining, I will study classical Chinese repeatedly, observe the tone of function words and sum up some rules: Fu and Gai mean that the speaker expresses hesitation, but he means speculation and rhetorical question. The more function words are used in classical Chinese, the smarter they are, and the more they can really grasp the meaning. Reading eliminates the obstacles of function words.
Third, master the part-of-speech phenomenon.
Some notional words in classical Chinese are about to change the meaning of function words, and the words have been changed. I have used other words according to their original explanations, mastered the basic rules of parts of speech, and analyzed their meanings in combination with specific language images. I learned classical Chinese and told the main situation of important parts of speech:
1 Use of words, adjectives and nouns
Words, adjectives and nouns are all used to make meaningful words have the meaning of objects. The use of ancient Chinese words is generally limited to transitive words and transitive words. The use of objects is to make the use of objects less, and the use of objects changes the pronunciation. Example: Zhao Dun wine and transitive words are different in usage, which can be summarized.
2 the meaning of adjectives and nouns
Adjectives and nouns used as identification and meaning words, indicating that the subject recognizes the object or the behavior of the subject and object.
3 nouns are used as words
Nouns used as words have the characteristics of words and are re-expressed, or things are related to nouns. For example, the use of nouns belongs to the use of nouns in ancient Chinese, and the use of common words is very common in ancient Chinese.
4 nouns as adverbials
Nouns in ancient Chinese are used as adverbials of direct modification and restrictive predicates of actions, actions, forms, places and tools.
In addition, I should pay attention to three issues:
Pay attention to the difference of meaning, so that I can provide two differences: first, if the subject is used to make the object used objectively, then the subject or object must be seen objectively; Second, if a noun is a word, it will be a meaning (the word itself uses adjectives to make it mean, but see it)
Second, we should pay attention to the conditions for the use of parts of speech. We should distinguish whether words have been used or not. It mainly depends on which parts of speech are combined in front of the sentence and what language characteristics the sentence relationship has. More importantly, use nouns, adjectives, nouns and adjectives.
1 When two nouns are used together, the coordinate structure is biased, and the former noun takes the noun as the object. When two nouns are used together, the former noun uses the subject noun as the predicate.
Nouns and adjectives have literal meanings. Example: Chen Ba fish belly.
Nouns and adjectives, such as energy and desire. , you can use words. For example, it is called Ye Gong: "Wife ..."
4 nouns with adverbs (adverbial or adjective modifiers) Example: Sui movement in Qin Dynasty
Examples of words used in front of pronouns such as nouns, adjectives and me.
..... outside.
Nouns use prepositional structures as complements. Examples of nouns: Jin Yu
7 Nouns are connected with words: Chang Li Zun Wang Xian
Third, we should pay attention to clarify the problem: part-of-speech usage says that a word belongs to one part of speech and has the nature of another part of speech. For example, I can say that gold and jade are nouns.
Fourth, pay attention to mastering several pragmatic sentences.
Pragmatic sentences in Chinese are basically the same as those in modern Chinese. I mainly want to master five sentence patterns: judgment sentence, interrogative sentence, complex sentence and ellipsis sentence variant sentence.
1 sentence
Make a positive or negative judgment on the nature, situation and relationship of things. In modern Chinese, judgment words are used to express judgment. Just like classical Chinese, nouns or noun phrases are directly used as predicates to express judgment, and some auxiliary words, modal particles and adverbs are often used to express or strengthen the main forms of judgment mood:
(1) The subject indicates Teton predicate with auxiliary words and ends with modal particles.
(2) The subject uses the user to express Teton.
(3) The predicate uses the tail.
(4), all use.
5. Use adverbs such as "nai" and "must be" before the predicate to emphasize the tone.
Used to express positive judgment.
Once, use adverbs to express negative judgments.
Used as a judgment word in classical Chinese
Two sentences
Sentence subject-predicate words express the sender and receiver in classical Chinese with the help of some prepositions and auxiliary words;
(1) Introduce the subject with prepositions.
(2) Introduce the subject with prepositions.
⑶ Use auxiliary words to express.
(4) Use prepositions to express.
5] Express ... in the following format. ...
[6] It is expressed in the format of "see"
Three ellipsis sentences
Some groups of classical Chinese sentences are habitually omitted, and there are several situations that need to be supplemented in translating modern Chinese:
① Omitted subjects include inheriting the past, Mongolia, self-reported or province.
(2) omit the predicate: the stock is angry and then (drum) falls three times (drum).
③ Omit the object.
(4) omit the preposition in,
Four interrogative sentences
There are two main situations in which interrogative pronouns or interrogative modal particles are used to ask questions in classical Chinese interrogative sentences:
(1) Ask questions with interrogative pronouns
(2) Ask questions with interrogative modal particles.
Five different sentences
The word order of some sentences in classical Chinese and the corresponding sentence patterns in modern Chinese can be seen from four situations: (1) subject-predicate inversion sentences.
(2) Preposition object.
Several situations of prepositional object;
(1) condensed pronoun as prepositional object object.
(2) negative pronouns as object prepositional objects.
(3) Use or object to emphasize before the word.
⑶ Attributes are put in classical Chinese, and some modified attributes are put in Chinese.
(4) In modern Chinese, prepositional structures are preceded by adverbials, while in ancient Chinese, some put complements.
Master the basis of classical Chinese translation
Classical Chinese translation basically boils down to four words: increase, tune, stay and change.
The first rites of ancient Chinese and modern Chinese make the language concise and ellipsis. Ellipsis theory is more common than modern Chinese, and it inherits the former two provinces. The omitted content is the subject, predicate and object preposition root. When I read classical Chinese, I have to omit the supplement to understand the meaning of the text.
Quantifiers in ancient Chinese are more developed than those in parts of speech. Pre-Qin quantifiers are more abundant in modern Chinese. I need to find corresponding quantifiers to supplement the translation of classical Chinese.
The second tone is some special rules of word order in ancient Chinese, such as preposition object, attributive adverbial placement, subject inversion and so on. , or according to the word order of the original translation, easy to confuse and cause misunderstanding. I must adjust the original text according to the changing law of ancient and modern Chinese word order to conform to the characteristics of modern Chinese word order.
Classical Chinese, especially rhyme, is an inverted sentence language phenomenon, an inverted sentence language or an urgent language, or an inverted sentence language is associated with rhyme. When I read ancient Chinese, I must translate it according to the inverted sentences of the content.
The third is to retain the original translation, name, name, official name, dynasty name, emperor name and some laws and regulations.
Some basic words, such as hand, mountain, water and cow, have the same meaning in ancient and modern times. Some basic words are still in use today and must be translated.
In order to enhance the artistic effect of foreign works, poems, ballads, aphorisms and proverbs are quoted in the works. Example: In the Three Gorges of Badong, the apes sang three times, and tears stained their skirts ("Three Gorges"), and the folk songs were reserved for translation, otherwise the special charm of poetry would be lost.
Fourthly, Chinese is ever changing, and many monosyllabic words in classical Chinese can be used in modern Chinese. In morpheme translation, words with the same or similar meanings in modern Chinese should be used instead of words in classical Chinese. For example, Chen Weiwang and Yan Wangjing (Biography of Lian Po Forest) should be replaced by words with the same or similar meanings in modern Chinese.
Addition translation, adjustment translation, reservation translation and exchange translation are independent and concrete translation processes, and they are interrelated and used together.
Master the translation skills of classical Chinese.
Besides mastering four kinds of translation, you should also master some skills.
In the first sentence, you should be imaginative in choosing words and making sentences. Imagination should be used to train and accumulate words. Comparison and elimination should be used to judge whether the translated sentences are in line with the usefulness of the original text, such as Jun You Yan sentence, Yan Yan sentence and the end of the first sentence. Second, adjectives end with strange words, so there is no second; At the end of the three sentences, it should be used as a preposition, a noun or a pronoun, so it is not three; Four generations of sentences, if the pronoun translation is exactly the same as the whole sentence, all kinds of sentence patterns are full of imagination. Examples begin with definite pronouns and object pronouns, so pronouns of negative sentences. The sentence of prepositional object should be translated first, and then the second step is death. This word can dominate this object. If you want to use meaning, use it, consider it one by one, and translate it with old sentences. No one died.
Secondly, we should use some knowledge of ancient Chinese and modern Chinese to analyze some sentences, so as to understand them accurately. To achieve accurate translation, we must treat a sentence as dead, hate it, hate it, put it on the whole structure, that is, hate it, dissect it, that is, hate it, treat it as a dead object, save it as a dead object, and then treat the object and subject-predicate phrase as a dead object, so that the independence of the sentence can be abolished. After word-for-word analysis, we can translate hatred () and look at death.
From my point of view, we need to practice the basic knowledge of classical Chinese and accumulate translation skills. I usually try to remember some classical Chinese knowledge and translation skills, otherwise the source will be exhausted and the tricks will be discovered. In ancient times, the scholar was required to finish the thesis in three hours, but I was in a hurry to eat and sleep. Seeing this, my grandmother said: Is it harder to write articles than my children? Although it is difficult for children to write articles, it is difficult for smart daughters-in-law to cook. The progress of the story proves my point.
Talk about some aspects of self-study practice.
Pay attention to reading when learning classical Chinese.
Cheng's Reading Book says: If you read well, you will never forget some old bitter words. Today, all journalists are trying to read practical experience. I can learn from my study of classical Chinese. Read and recite some China classical poems with beautiful quality and moderate depth. Storing some classical Chinese information is beneficial to cognitive transfer and reading comprehension.
At first, the basis of understanding reading aloud is to learn the text through repeated reading, and gradually strengthen understanding until recitation is different from rote learning. Macro-control, micro-enrichment, macro-gradual and repeated reading is from reading to understanding and learning classical Chinese.
Secondly, we should always consult reference books.
Reference books are specially designed for consulting and reading books, and readers can obtain the knowledge or materials they want to know in a short time. I study classical Chinese and use it as a reference book for teachers to solve doubts. There are many reference books for me to learn classical Chinese: Ancient Chinese Dictionary, Classical Chinese Function Words Dictionary, Kangxi Dictionary, Shuowen Jiezi, Cihai and Ciyuan.
Third, practice.
Keep the brain in the knowledge period of learning knowledge, and only by memorizing new knowledge can we ensure the realization of the goal. In order to firmly grasp knowledge, we must consolidate what we have learned, practice and accumulate knowledge, and improve our ability to read simple classical Chinese.
Fourth, we should be good at accumulating information.
Writing a book says that you need to quote classics and use a lot of data to quote. Some materials often need to be accumulated bit by bit. Everyone likes reading and is good at playing knowledge cards and so on. Hegel, though light, had no talent for accumulating reading. Cards are sorted, arranged and labeled one by one. Repeated thinking and application will eventually make a knowledgeable philosopher pay attention to reading and accumulate data, which will be beneficial to training, improve reading and analysis ability, make it accurate (Bacon) and reduce the burden on the brain. The second brain can use some data to deal with it.