Is it Lingchi?
Lingchi is also called Lingchi, which is what the people call "death by a thousand cuts". Lingchi originally meant that the slope of the mountain gradually decreased. It was used in the name of the death penalty. It refers to the fact that when a person is executed, the flesh on the person's body is cut off with a knife, so that the victim dies slowly and painfully.
Lingchi punishment first appeared in the Five Dynasties period, and was officially named as a punishment in the Liao Dynasty. Since then, it has been stipulated as a legal punishment in the Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, and it is the most cruel kind of death penalty.
This kind of criminal law is mainly used to punish some of the ten evil crimes, such as rebellion, treason, etc. During the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, beating and scolding parents or parents-in-law, a son killing his father, or a wife killing her husband were also serious crimes that violated ethics and morals, and were punished by ling-delay. But later, in order to suppress the peasants' resistance, those who did not pay taxes on time were also punished with long and late punishments. This was especially prominent during the period of Ming Taizu.
The execution method of Lingchixing was very cruel. The general description is that the flesh of the person was cut off piece by piece. There are also differences in the execution methods of the past dynasties. Generally, eight cuts are made, first cutting the head and face, then the hands and feet, then the chest and abdomen, and finally the head. But in fact there are more than eight swords. In the Qing Dynasty, there were twenty-four swords, thirty-six swords, seventy-two swords and one hundred and twenty swords. The twenty-four knives are: knives 1 and 2 cut off both eyebrows, knives 3 and 4 cut off both shoulders, knives 5 and 6 cut off both breasts, knives 7 and 8 cut off both hands and between the elbows, knives nine and ten cut off both elbows and two For the part between the shoulders, knives 11 and 12 cut off the meat of the legs, knives 134 cut the calves, knives 15 stabbed the heart, knives 16 cut off the head, knives 17 and 18 cut both hands, and knives 10 Nine or twenty knives cut off both wrists, twenty-one or twenty-two knives cut off both feet, and twenty-three or twenty knives cut off both legs.
During the actual execution, there were many more, the most common being Liu Jin, the evil-doing eunuch of the Ming Dynasty who was mutilated for three days and 4,700 knives. By the Guangxu period in 1905 AD, Lingchi punishment was abolished.
Lingchi
People in Asia and the Middle East particularly prefer this punishment. The key to this punishment is to beat the human body piecemeal until death.
The Persian Empire divided the rebels into four equal quarters. When the Romans dealt with female prisoners, they first cut off their breasts, and for male prisoners, they first removed their genitals. The Greeks also added the process of deboning when cutting the meat, making each prisoner look like a rag doll filled with sawdust. But compared to the Chinese, other ethnic groups appear rough. The Chinese developed Lingchi to the pinnacle, making it a unique skill. At the beginning of the execution, the executioner will skillfully cut out the prisoner's Adam's apple with a knife to prevent him from screaming. Then quickly bleed and bandage the wound. The first part to be touched is the back. The flesh cut off with each knife must be only the size of a fingernail. To kill an adult, 3,357 knives must be performed. The knives must reveal blood and remove flesh. They must be affixed on a large white porcelain plate for the audience to appreciate and receive praise. If the prisoner dies before the prescribed number of knives, he will be executed
The executioner will be scorned by the audience and may lose his job.
Ling Chi - A brief history of "torture" in China
In the 1910s, "Ling Chi" began to become famous in Europe because of the photos taken by French soldiers in 1904 and 1905. The postcard format was compiled into a book and became very popular. However, torture had already been abolished in April 1905. "Lingchi" is regarded as the ultimate representative of "Chinese torture" in France, inspiring countless writers and artists, even until 1960 when Georges. A collection of Georges Bataille's photographs, which were later repainted by Chen Jieren, is published. These images represent China, its history and civilization, and similar styles continue to influence Westerners to this day.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, "Ling Chi" has become the most typical punishment in China's penal system. However, the fact is exactly the opposite: Lingchi is very different from ancient punishments, and it should be a modern punishment. Although the word "lingchi" first appeared in the tenth century, it was not officially incorporated into criminal law until the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Regardless of the punishment itself or its name, it is very likely that it did not originate in China. In addition, the legal historian Shen Jiaben (1840-1913) petitioned in 1905 to delete the death penalty such as Lingchi, which was also used as one of the arguments. After all, "Ling Chi" does not conform to the spirit of Chinese law, the characteristics of punishment, and the method of application. It seems to be more similar to the type of punishment of "special law." Of course, this special law was subordinate to the emperor's judicial system, and its implementation was recorded in the "Law" of the Yuan Dynasty. However, after careful observation, it was found that the establishment of non-criminal punishment violated the normal legal spirit. From its establishment to its abolition, literati always called it cruel and inhumane punishment.
Modern related punishments
Lingchi is a punishment of dismemberment, which involves the cutting and separation of body limbs. Photos taken in the late Qing Dynasty show real "eight-knife" executions. In the eight-knife punishment, the executioner used a basket of numbered sharp knives: the first stab was on the chest (always starting from the left side, and the same applies to the other parts listed below); the second stab was on the biceps; the third stab was on the biceps. The thigh; the fourth and fifth knives, cut the arm to the elbow; the sixth and seventh knives, cut the calf to the knee; the eighth knife, cut the owl's head. The dismembered body remains were placed in a basket and the head was displayed publicly for an indefinite period of time. This was a practice in the late Qing Dynasty. It is commonly known as "sixteen swords", "thirty-two swords", "three hundred and sixty swords"... However, we don't know whether these numbers really exist or are just constructed numbers.
The "knife" in the Ming Dynasty had the meaning of cutting and "many". The number increased and the execution time was extended. In 1510, the eunuch Liu Jin was sentenced to three days for conspiring to rebel. However, he died the next day. This is a special case. The eunuch was hated and sentenced to death, and was sentenced to the heaviest crime of treason. Ming history never mentioned that Liu Jin suffered the punishment of "Lingchi", but that he was "dedicated to the city", which belongs to the category of "abandoning the city" The form clearly stated that the execution must be public.
It is not easy to distinguish the difference between "Ling Chi" and other similar punishments, and to understand the practice of "Ling Chi" before the Qing Dynasty. As we delve deeper into the origins of this punishment, clearer relevant information becomes increasingly scarce. We must first distinguish: on the one hand, these penal practices include dismemberment; and the appearance of the word "Ling Chi" indicates the legality of dismemberment criminal law.
If we read the history of criminal law, we can find many cases in history in which generals and officials were sentenced to pieces and chopped off. The most horrific details can be associated with kitchen menus. Reading these historical episodes makes me confused about the origin of "Lingchi". Of course, there are two situations of cutting the body: in the so-called capital punishment such as "蔔" and "_", the body is completely cut off, and the prisoner becomes the flesh of a cannibal, and the enemy can feast in his own hall; and "Lingchi" On the contrary, after the body was dismembered, the human figure was still recognizable and was later displayed in the market. Another basic difference is that cases of "death" punishment are extremely rare and unique, and official historians carefully preserve them as examples of cruel and terrible tyrants. While these cases are horrific, they are anecdotal and may even be mere legends. On the contrary, from the end of the 11th century onwards, "Lingchi" was a well-named and frequently implemented punishment. It was not just an anecdote or legend, but a real and horrific historical fact.
We also found many similar "Ling Chi" punishments for punishing rebellion and rebellion. For example, in 613 AD, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty sentenced the rebels to dismemberment, arrow piercing and genocide. Similarly, the Sui Dynasty also deleted the "Sui Code" corporal punishment in ". In addition to being used in judicial trials, this type of punishment is also used during the war, and it is real. Similar punishments can be seen in almost every dynasty, usually called "甔" or "dismemberment", so it often makes people think that the word "Lingchi" is not used for a kind of physical punishment of dismemberment, but only for court punishments. Legal ruling. The whole point is to understand how extreme methods used in special cases can find a place in the code and thus become a perfect legal "sentence" by which judges can often pronounce sentences.
_Origin and mysterious name
The word "Ling Chi" first appeared in "Liao History Criminal Law Chronicles", naming it as a type of corporal punishment. This term is very mysterious. It is undoubtedly a combination of Chinese characters and the Khitan language of the grassland people.
We can find almost the same nouns in previous dynasties, but the first character most often appears as "Ling" next to the word "Fu"; "Ling" means "Fu" or mound; The word "Chi" cannot be interpreted as "late" in modern Chinese, but is the verb of "smoothing" or "scraping". Specifically, "Lingchi" can refer to the paving or leveling of a mound, which means a tomb, a collective tomb of a clan. However, the historical records of some dynasties have symbolic meanings: "Ling", a slope or an earth embankment along a canal, represents systems, laws, and the demarcation boundaries of all national structures; "Chi" represents the sinking and collapse of boundaries. Therefore, "Lingchi" means the beginning of decline. At this time, effective measures must be taken to prevent the collapse of the system. Therefore, this term is not directly related to the punishment system. It was not used to refer to a type of corporal punishment until the Liao Dynasty. There are some differences in writing (people find it written as "Zhi" instead of "Chi"), and "Ling" next to the character "bing" became more common than "ling" next to the character "fu". "History of the Song Dynasty" also uses two writing methods at the same time. However, starting from the Yuan Dynasty, only the second writing method can be found, which is "Ling" next to the word "bing", and it will always be used as an explanation for punishment. The ancient writing method only appeared in ancient books, and was no longer used by later generations. From then on, "Ling Chi" was just a name for corporal punishment, and only a few knowledgeable people would remember its former meaning.
What happened? It is very certain that it was originally a noun in the Khitan language, and its pronunciation is very close to the Chinese character "Ling Chi". It was a type of corporal punishment used under the Khitan Liao Dynasty regime, and it may have been the use of a knife to cut the bound prisoners. After several considerations, the term was fixed to refer to this type of corporal punishment during the Liao Dynasty's rule in China.
For Chinese scholars who study the reform of the penal system, this kind of punishment has the blood of the barbarians, and its noun is obscure. Although it does not belong to the "five punishments" system, it has a very clear influence on the Han people. of words. However, tying people to a tree, killing and cutting them up were not only executions in barbarian areas or foreign dynasties. Lingchi methods became more and more frequent, systematic and followed by Xiao Cao Cao. The Song Dynasty spread to the Yuan Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty continued. It was also spread to the Qing Dynasty. China in these dynasties, like the dynasties established by the grassland peoples, continued to pass them on. Zhu Yuanzhang, the Great Khan of the Mongol Dynasty and later the Ming Taizu, was the first to implement various types of Lingchi. He issued the "Great Edict" and punished various crimes with the punishment of "Lingchi", especially the corruption of officials, and even No matter how small the financial figure is.
_The continued expansion of capital punishment
After the Han Dynasty, Chinese dynasties carefully defined the legal punishment norms. A good dynasty must try its best to curb the number of death sentences and abolish the most cruel corporal punishments.
Therefore, the Sui Dynasty established the "Five Punishments" for their power: whipping, rod, disciple, exile, and death. The Tang Dynasty also adopted this system, and subsequent generations followed suit, with penalties significantly reduced in the Tang Dynasty. If the administration of justice inflicts torture in order to extract a confession, then the death penalty of hanging or beheading cannot be understood as causing the defendant to suffer pain - the Tang Dynasty in 745 AD even considered abolishing the death penalty! Since the Anlu Mountain Rebellion, chaos has been frequent, so capital punishment was often carried out. At that time, it entered a period that is difficult to decipher: in theory, the Sui and Tang Dynasties still implemented the system of five punishments; in fact, judging from the code, it stipulated Many more Ling_ practices.
The "Lingchi" punishment continued to expand in the Song Dynasty, but the royal power also refused to change the criminal law, so the name "Lingchi" still does not appear in the "Song Xingtong". First, it was an emergency measure against a bloody rebellion, following the teachings of human religion on sacrifice. Song Zhenzong (998-1022) issued an edict prohibiting minister Yang Shouzhen from disbanding the rebels. During the reign of Renzong, partisanship broke out during Wang Anshi's reform. In addition to "lingchi", "cutting in half" also became a frequently used punishment at that time. Ma Duanlin pointed out in "Tongkao of Documents" that ministers used these punishments to deter officials who wanted to seek the throne. During the Southern Song Dynasty, Lingchi's punishments increased more and more, but there were also officials who opposed them. For example, Lu You's memorials, which I will describe later. "Lingchi" has never been included in the Song Dynasty's legal code, so it is very difficult to understand the actual implementation. I think it is still limited to be used to punish rebellion and conspiracy in treason, and this is a possible situation.
The Yuan Dynasty officially designated "Ling Chi" as a type of death penalty in the criminal law. The second important point is that they regarded it as a tool for the barbarians to promote their authority over the Han people. However, we can also see that the laws of the Yuan Dynasty legalized Lingchi just like the late Southern Song Dynasty. In the early Yuan Dynasty, Ling Chi no longer became an extreme method to suppress riots and dangerous sects, but became a common punishment for special crimes. Lingchi, from the time it was codified in the Yuan Dynasty until it was abolished by the Qing Dynasty in 1905, was mainly used to punish three major categories of crimes:
- Crimes of rebellion against the monarch: major riots, treason, and conspiracy to seize the throne.
- Moral crimes: children murder their parents, younger brothers murder their elders, wives murder their husbands, slaves murder their masters.
- Cruel and inhumane crimes: cutting off the limbs of others while alive (using witchcraft); killing more than three people from the same family; organizing and sending people to create terror.
The first and third categories only legalize the ancient punishment of dismemberment. Incidentally, they are quite close to European criminal punishments: in France, the crime of murdering the monarch is punishable by quartering the body on four horses. As a capital punishment, the leader of the Communist Party had to undergo round torture and have his limbs cut off with an iron weapon; in the UK, they used the punishment of quartering, which, like China, was publicly executed and dismembered in public, and was practiced until the 18th century. century.
The Chinese have a tendency to aggravate punishment.
First of all, the first characteristic is the synonymization of monarchy and fatherhood. Respecting relatives is like the emperor in their kingdom, they are protected, wives, concubines, children, and servants are subjects, and there is a tendency to seek power and position. In the West, the crime of paternity is severely punished, but not to the extent of punishing the crime of murdering the monarch. Only the Chinese have carried forward their original methods to quell rebellions among relatives.
The second characteristic is that the verdict of "Ling Chi" involves the "three clans", that is, all the respected relatives on the paternal and maternal lines! What is even more absurd is that most of the chaos was committed by individuals, but when the verdict was pronounced, it was regarded as a family crime. Although only Zhu Yuanzhang was interested in enforcing this rule and vigorously purging public officials; but don't forget that his son Yongle once massacred Fang Xiaoru, who was loyal to the previous emperor Jianwen, and more than 800 people in his family who were implicated. Later, the "Three Tribes" law was no longer a capital offense for incriminating relatives, but was changed to banishment. During the Qing Dynasty, only adult sons would be exiled for an uncertain period of time. The Qing Dynasty continued the laws of the Ming Dynasty, but the penalties were reduced, including the first category of crimes of treason against the monarch. Therefore, "literary prison" cases were often sentenced to lingchi punishment, but no criminals, like Dai Mingshi (1653-1710) and others, would really suffer the punishment of dismemberment. The crimes they committed could be changed to beheading or death. On the contrary, the two major categories of crimes, including other ethical crimes, cruelty and inhumane crimes, especially the crime of robbery, would be punished with lingchi, which was implemented until the criminal law reform was abolished in the late Qing Dynasty.
_Ling Chi’s Literary Resistance from the Beginning to Its Abolition
Ling Chi appeared in the Liao Dynasty in 920 AD. It became a legal punishment at the end of the 13th century and was abolished in 1905. It lasted for a century in Europe (France abolished rotation in 1789, and Britain abolished dismemberment in 1810). The abolition of Lingchi was the first step towards the implementation of Western legal codes. Imprisonment and fines replaced the original corporal punishment, and hangings were restrained.
Some people realize that the inhumane torture of "Ling Chi" means that they believe that the Chinese people have European laws and concepts, which is a serious mistake. Since the Song Dynasty, there have been calls to limit or abolish the punishment of Lingchi. The best example that could prove the abolition of Lingchi at that time was the love letter of the great poet and official Lu You. This text was a surprising move at the time: he believed that Lingchi only needed to be replaced by execution, and he passionately defended the benefits of abolishing Lingchi.
In fact, Lu You's arguments can be summarized as follows: (1) Cruel death methods and exposure of organs make the nation disrespectful and hinder the mission of practical enlightenment; (2) To fight against the worst faction, one should not retaliate in kind: dismember criminals and It is illegal, even if he has dismembered others; (3) The Han Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty both provided innovative and effective punishment systems and abandoned torture. Therefore, he believed that "lingchi" and other cruel punishments should be limited and abolished.
This text is often quoted by literati who oppose Lingchi, who put forward various arguments. I will only quote the most important ones here: Wang Ming, a jurist in the early Qing Dynasty, mentioned in his book "Reading the Law Pei" published in 1680 that Lingchi was outside the five punishments, so he was "outside the righteous law". Punishment, or "non-punishment". Indeed, although the emperors of various dynasties adopted it, it was not in line with the law and went against the spirit of Chinese punishment. Qian Da_ (1728-1804), a great scholar who was good at textual research, insisted that the word Lingchi was obscure and difficult_, and the name of the punishment must be clear and clear, and he must be able to "understand the punishment and teach". All the debates were circulated and collected among the literati of the Qing Dynasty. Xue Yunsheng (1820-1901), an erudite jurist of the Qing Dynasty, whose two works "Tang Ming Lv Compilation" and "Reading Cases in Question" also had far-reaching implications for the changes in criminal law in the late Qing Dynasty. influence. He quoted a lot of the views of Lu You, Wang Ming_ and Qian Da_, and urged the restoration of the Han and Tang Dynasties, and not to include Ling Chi in the criminal law. His protégé Shen Jiaben also adopted the same argument, and in the memorial on April 24, 1905, "Ling Chi" was finally officially abolished.
Of course, under the rule of the emperor, the voices of literati calling for the abolition of Lingchi or the reduction of the death penalty were too weak, and they had to withstand heavy external pressure. We can even speculate that after the Taiping Rebellion, similar executions were very frequent in the late Qing Dynasty. Therefore, a few months before Lingchi was abolished, French embassy soldiers took photos of Lingchi of three different death row prisoners at the Caishikou execution ground in Beijing. These photos are detrimental to China's past and turned into horrific evidence. But what would happen if there was a photo, or a photographer could capture images of British or French torture similar to "Ling Chi"? "Chinese torture" is not only an objective fact in legal history, I am here to argue, but it also affects Europeans, leaving a certain perception of China in an instant. This is a common example in history, but it is novel. For the first time, Western civilization has the technological method to freeze vision on paper. Here, historians should leave some space to this artist, who knew how to express his extraordinary perspective of contempt for the hidden power and manipulation of the rulers.