Presided over by the Qing rulers.
"
New Deal
"
The anti-Qing revolutionary movement led by Sun Yat-sen, the pioneer of modern democratic revolution,
This happened in
Two major events in the same historical time and space are incompatible with each other and have a great influence on future generations. It can be said that between the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty
Then promoted the process of the Revolution of 1911. As for how to treat their value and function, later researchers have different opinions.
There are many lawsuits. Looking at the literature, some people think that the Revolution of 1911 is meaningless, and the Qing Dynasty will have a constitution in a few years, so it is necessary to abolish the monarch.
Autocracy; Some people also denied the positive significance of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, thinking that it was just a lingering struggle before the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, which was different from the Revolution of 1911.
There is no direct connection between life and death.
In my opinion, the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty was closely related to the Revolution of 1911 in terms of economy, culture and law. the Revolution of 1911
Development is closely related to the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty. The development of national capitalism in the late Qing Dynasty provided conditions for bourgeois democratic revolution.
Economic base; Due to the growth of the national bourgeoisie, it provided a class foundation for the bourgeois democratic revolution;
The upsurge of running schools and studying abroad has produced many young students and intellectuals, which is the group of democratic revolution.
Public foundations; Due to the emergence of the new army in the late Qing dynasty and the shift of the revolutionary focus to the new army, the new army gradually became.
Gravediggers of the Qing government became the front of the democratic revolution.
Let me explain my views separately:
First of all, the constitutional monarchy weakened the control of the Qing court.
190 1
Imitation constitutionalism, which began in 1998, had a great impact on feudal autocracy. On the surface, constitutional monarchy seems
It can not only restore the dignity of the Qing government and maintain the imperial system, but also stabilize the society, strengthen the country and enrich the people, which conforms to the trend of the times.
A relatively safe and gradual reform is needed.
But political reform is extremely risky.
It needs top leaders in particular.
(layer)
Leadership authority formed in long-term ruling experience.
This authority is to overcome the difficulties of reform,
The key to stabilizing the reform achievements.
However, in the contest with foreign invasion, the Qing government was one of them.
If we lose again, we will lose people's hearts.
1900
Before Eight-Nation Alliance in, Li Hongzhang, Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, Liu Kunyi, Governor of Liangjiang and Governor of Huguang.
Governor Zhang Zhidong, Sichuan Governor Kui Jun, Fujian and Zhejiang Governor Xu, Fuzhou General Shan Lian, Yangtze River Governor and Jiangsu Governor.
Lu, Anhui Governor, Hubei Governor Yu, Hunan Governor Yu Liansan, Guangdong Governor Deshou and other ceremonial soldiers accompanied him:
The mob can't be obtained, witchcraft can't be trusted, and soldiers can't open it. Yuan Shikai, the governor of Shandong Province, also pointed out: the court is chaotic and the whole country listens.
So, for example, if you are favored, the disaster is unbearable. Then he sent troops to save Beijing and implemented mutual insurance in the southeast. Fight back against Eight-Nation Alliance's failure
Cixi' s ruling ability has been greatly questioned, and
1908
Guangxu and Cixi died in succession in 1920, which made the situation worse.
The Qing government also lost the most powerful law to stabilize and control the social and political situation.
In this way,
The main leadership of the constitutional monarchy fell to
In the hands of the royal family represented by Zai Feng, the prince of alcohol and the lack of political qualifications and authority made them struggle in political reform.
Heavy, but also forced them to rely more on their own cronies, holding a group to keep warm to maintain the real power of the Manchu high-level, which is precisely
It runs counter to the openness of power required by constitutional monarchy.
Therefore,
Many practices in the reform have spawned a large number of reforms.
People of insight are disappointed and dissatisfied.
The New Deal entered the stage of no reform in the late Qing Dynasty,
The greater the change in political power, the less satisfied they are.
In a strange circle.
However, the reform of the central official system, which supports constitutional monarchy, has intensified the centrifugal tendency of more officials.
1906
"five ministers"
The political delegation came back from Japan, America and Europe. In the subsequent investigation report, they clearly pointed out that "constitutionalism is beneficial."
Yu Jun is beneficial to the people, not to the officials ",and the subsequent reform facts also verified this view, which is also the view of a considerable number of officials.
Constitutional monarchy and * * * and peace take a fence-riding attitude, and finally abandon the reasons.
1906
Since, the reform of the central official system has been going on.
At the beginning of the implementation, advanced administrative systems in the west, such as decentralization system, full-time system of separate posts, and responsibility cabinet system, began to appear: the implementation of the big cabinet system.
The ministerial system, so that "all ministries are set up separately, all for the government, and they discuss each other when they enter, and they are in charge of each department when they leave"; The central institutions are connected.
Leave, change, merge and increase to make the setting more reasonable; The number of officials depends on things and positions, which improves the work.
Efficiency. However, the official system reform in the late Qing Dynasty made some Han officials lose some power, but it had a weak influence on Manchu officials because
An important principle of reform is that power does not fall outside Manchu. According to government regulations, institutions involved in royal and court affairs, such as
Zongren mansion, inner house, etc. May be retained or renamed, resulting in the military and
1 1
In all ministries, Manchu and maharaja love each other.
Majority. special
19 1 1
year
five
After the Qing government implemented the responsibility cabinet system, there were only four Han bureaucrats among the thirteen ministers of state.
People call it the "Royal Cabinet". This incident directly led to the dissatisfaction of the Han etiquette and the people, and also greatly improved the people.
Enthusiasm of "expelling Tatars, restoring China, establishing the Republic of China, and sharing land rights equally"
In addition, the reform of local autonomy has also enhanced local centrifugal force. In order to prepare for the constitutional reform, the Qing government put forward the reform of local autonomy.
Ge: "Local autonomy is the foundation of constitutionalism, and villages and towns are the initial foundation of constitutionalism. Really have to start first. " Local constitution
The first stage is the spontaneous establishment of local self-government organizations with new gentry and businessmen as the main body, of which "Nanshe" and "Security Bureau" are the most important.
On behalf of. The second stage is to formulate laws to support and regulate local autonomy, such as
1909
year
1
This month's "towns and villages from the local.
Regulations, and then successively promulgated the Constitution of Local Autonomy in Shi Jing, the Constitution of Local Autonomy in Prefectures and Counties, and the Imperial Constitution.
Legal outline, etc. if
1900
In 2008, "Southeast Mutual Insurance" was a forced local autonomy, but this time it was.
Ethnic local autonomy promoted by the Qing government.
In this process,
Local governors and gentry have great autonomy and political participation.
In order to improve, many provinces made ideological preparation, organizational preparation and talent preparation after the Revolution of 1911.
Anyway,
With the high-level power in Qing Dynasty losing its due authority,
Central officials' dissatisfaction with the loss or reduction of power,
Such as strengthening the autonomy and independence of local forces,
A top-down centrifugal official group was formed within the Qing government.
Minivan
Obeying the tendency of local separatism, the Qing government will inevitably demand to concentrate power again, and the contradiction between the government and the local government will become increasingly acute. This is also
Later, the Revolution of 1911 broke out easily and spread rapidly.
Second, the new economic policy has angered the public.
The political reform of the Qing government made local politicians' enthusiasm for participating in politics increasingly high.
At the same time, the new economic policy has greatly stimulated people.
Children's material desires have promoted the wave of setting up industries. However, the Qing government's new policies and measures on coins and road rights made local relevant groups
Very dissatisfied.
First of all, the policy of coinage and the right to issue money were constantly changing, which led to the Qing government losing its economic control. Due to casting and distribution
Monetary profits are rich, and excessive issuance of silver and copper coins in various places is serious. Influenced by the world gold standard mechanism at that time, China was unreasonable.
War reparations were forced to be settled at the price of gold, which made silver cheap and gold expensive and caused serious inflation in the late Qing Dynasty. To this end, the Qing government once paid for it.
Coin casting and distribution have undergone three centralized reforms.
1899
year
six
In June, the Qing government ordered the removal of Hubei and Guangdong.
In addition, all mints stopped casting silver, which was strongly resisted by local governments. Soon, Tianjin, Jiangning Mint, Jilin Mint,
Fujian Mint successively obtained the permission of the Qing government to cast silver, and the unified silver dollar plan was forced to abort.
190 1
year
eight
In June, the Qing court came again.
An imperial edict was issued at a time, and all provinces except Hubei and Guangdong stopped casting silver. But in places where both soft and hard power are strong,
Jiangnan, Sichuan, Shandong, Fengtian and so on. Soon got a license to cast silver.
1903
1920, the Qing court decided to set up the general administration of money and money in the capital.
Factory, "the money used in each province is different in style and color, which is the most tiring for businessmen." Since the Ming dynasty, Beijing has set up a silver type.
Foundry silver coin factory. Once the new currency is completely minted and promulgated, all the public funds will be donated, and the money and food paid for customs duties will be used exclusively for this project.
Money. However, this reform has not yet solved the situation of "decentralization" of the monetary system centered on provincial governors. Unified issuance and control of funds
Financial integration was the necessity of social development at that time, but the practice of bullying the soft and fearing the hard in the monetary reform made many local forces despise the central power even more.
It further aggravated the economic chaos at that time. This commentary recorded an article entitled "Bad omen of national bankruptcy", which was later weighted by the whole country.
Social chaos caused by the collapse of big banks and big companies, "Xuantongyuannian (
1909
Three dollars a year, eight dollars a year, today.
It's only after May. There are five pieces. Its aid is about 30 million yuan, but many people still ignore it. "
Secondly, the railway state-owned policy promoted by the Qing government made people's grievances boil.
1903
year
12
In June, the Qing government promulgated the railway regulations.
Ming regulations, allowing commercial railways. The result is "in
1903
Year ~
1907
annual
five
Over the years, there have been
15
Three provinces have successively created
build
18
Railway company. Inland provinces such as Sichuan are even more enthusiastic. Lu Chuan's total stock has reached10 million pounds.
1 170
More than 22 thousand iron
The fund of railway shares mainly comes from "drawing rent shares", which is imposed by Sichuan-Han Railway Corporation with grain, which is equivalent to apportionment.
Raising funds has enabled a large number of farmers to join the stock market. Soon, Sheng Xuanhuai, the new minister of postal communications, and others thought that private fund-raising methods
It affects the speed of railway construction and other economic development, and railway management is more difficult. Therefore,
19 1 1
year
five
In June, the Qing government announced "Iron"
The trunk highway is state-owned, and the funds for the construction of the Guangdong-Han and Sichuan-Han railways are transferred to the banking groups of Britain, France, Germany and the United States. This makes Chuanhan and other places
The people's dream of making money was shattered. The behavior of transferring loan benefits to western countries is even more incomprehensible to the public. In addition, the Qing government
Loss of rubber investment in the original railway fund-raising company.
300
The hard-earned money of 12 thousand people will not be recognized,
All kinds of actions arouse public anger, leading to
To.
19 1 1
year
six
The Sichuan Road Protection Movement in June contributed to the Wuchang Uprising.
Modern people know that the national railway system cannot be built in its own way. But with the development of Yuan Shikai and Zhang Zhidong,
Words: "The mistake is that the decision is not timely." Because it ignores the imperialist aggression, especially what Eight-Nation Alliance has brought to China.
The resentment in people's hearts ignores their direct interests. In addition, Sheng Xuanhuai is not only the newly elected minister of postal communication, but also the manager.
There are many big enterprises.
Hanyeping Company, which he was in charge of, was able to produce about half of the required rails at that time.
There is reason to suspect that the original
This decision is related to his personal selfishness. Of course, behind the untimely decision-making was the economic embarrassment of the Qing government.
Xin Chou
treaty
9.83
One hundred million war reparations, plus the huge expenses required by the New Deal, made the Qing government unable to make ends meet, such as
19 10
Now, clear the government wealth.
Political income
29000
Twenty-two thousand, financial expenditure
35000
Twenty-two thousand, the deficit has increased.
6000
Two thousand. In order to fill the financial gap, governments at all levels
Expropriation and extortion, boiling public grievances, social unrest. This created very favorable social conditions for the outbreak of the Revolution of 1911.
Third, the Cultural New Deal provided a cultural environment for the Revolution of 1911.
If the Revolution of 1911 is to be successful throughout the country,
Relying solely on Dr. Sun Yat-sen's profound revolutionary thought and the League Uprising led by him is
Not enough,
It needs the cooperation of social background,
The reform of the new policy of educational public opinion in the late Qing Dynasty was the Revolution of 1911.
Provide a good cultural environment.
The greatest influence of the New Deal on culture is the abolition of the imperial examination system. Qing government from
190 1
From 1998, the imperial examination was gradually abolished, and in the Yuan Dynasty,
Driven by World Kai and Zhang Zhidong, Cixi was born in September 1905.
On the 2nd, he issued an imperial edict in the name of Emperor Guangxu: "From the beginning of the Bingwu branch,
All township exams will be stopped at the beginning. The annual examinations in all provinces will be stopped. "Since then, the imperial examination system has been officially abolished. 19th century, every imperial examination is approaching.
200,000 candidates, the success rate is about 0.9%, and the official rate is even lower, about 0.4%. but
The imperial examination system provides a hope for ordinary people to change their lives.
So as to attract a large number of talents to the voluminous ancient books,
floating
Destroyed their rebellious thoughts. After the abolition of the imperial examination, the selection channels of officials are diversified, the knowledge is novel, and the value of life is diversified.
Factors make a large number of new intellectuals who study not to be an official but to pursue the truth appear in the new school.
The educational statistics chart compiled by the General Affairs Department of the Qing Dynasty shows that the number of students in 1902 is only 69 12, 163964 1 in 1909, among which
Quite a few students devote themselves to military school study.
Many people have crossed the ocean to study abroad.
The new education has damaged the traditional old ideas.
While questioning, it also gave birth to various new ideas. They formed various schools and groups, many of whom later entered.
It has entered important social fields such as officialdom, industry and commerce, publishing and military. And a considerable number of new intellectuals have become Li.
A supporter of the constitutionalists and revolutionaries. This prepared a large number of backbone forces for the Revolution of 1911 to overthrow the imperial system of the Qing Dynasty.
The ideas and opinions of new intellectuals need to influence the society through certain media, and the Qing government unconsciously cooperated with them.
Channel construction. In the New Deal, the Qing government relatively relaxed "reporting prohibition" and "speaking prohibition". According to incomplete statistics, 190 1 China added 34 kinds of newspapers and periodicals, and 19 1 1 added 209 kinds, with a ten-year growth rate of about 5 15%.
1906
Promulgated by the Qing government
Laws such as the Special Law on Printed Materials in Qing Dynasty, the Regulations on Newspapers and Periodicals, the Regulations on Newspapers and Periodicals and the Law on Newspapers and Periodicals in Qing Dynasty were promulgated.
Provisions on standardizing and protecting the newspaper industry. In addition, in the Outline of the King James Constitution, it is also stipulated that "within the scope of subjects and laws, everything is said.
Theory, publication, writing, assembly and association are all allowed to be free. "Of course, the Qing government expanded the freedom of the press and speech.
The main purpose is to enable public opinion to "stop heresy and pay attention to defense", "safeguard justice and prevent false statements", so that public opinion can not only
There is something to express, and the people have no sense of confusion. "However, the relaxation of the public opinion environment provides favorable conditions for the formation of a new social context.
Sun Yat-sen, who grew up in the western media environment, is well aware of the political education function of newspapers and periodicals.
"Only a group of husbands, at most a few.
A good mind can make the best treatment suitable for our group and make the progress of our group suitable for this world. This is a kind of foresight.
I am the bounden duty of People's Daily. 1905 to 1907
In 2000, whether China took revolutionary measures or not.
It is a question of improving the way. Revolutionaries and reformers take People's Daily and Xinmin Cong Bao as their main public opinion positions respectively.
There is a big debate.
There are more than a dozen other newspapers and periodicals participating in this debate.
In newspapers and periodicals, Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries used height.
Concise words spread revolutionary theories and ideas to the whole of China.
The revolutionaries know that classical Chinese newspapers and periodicals are for readers, so they vigorously promote vernacular newspapers and periodicals. For example, Zou Rong's Leather.
Life army, Chen Tianhua JingShiZhong, fierce back, etc. Call bluntly for anti-Qing and anti-imperialism and rise up to revolution. famous book
Mr. Lu Xun, who experienced the Revolution of 1911, once said: "If you talk about influence, other words are probably not as simple and straightforward as' revolution'.
Zou Rong, the pawn of the army, wrote about the revolutionary army. In addition, word of mouth is the mode of communication of the bottom people. This spread
It is easier to form a lot of "misinformation" that is not conducive to the Qing court. For example, Suichang County, Zhejiang Province runs a school to investigate household registration and people in Nanxiang area.
But he also said that schools will harm others and themselves, which is not conducive to farmers and agricultural production. As a result, a large number of farmers gathered and proposed "swearing out of school"
Hall, in order to annon ",broke out immediately. For example, during the Xuan Tong period, the revolutionary Jing Meijiu looked up at the sky in Chang 'an, Shaanxi.
Comets appear in the world, casually creating a prophetic rumor that "comets appear in the East and the West and have been publicized for two and a half years", and assuming that this rumor has been circulating for a long time.
I don't know what it means, but deliberately lead others to explain "the death of the Qing family." As a result, this rumor makes people feel shaken.
Move it. "
The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty objectively created a favorable social environment for the Revolution of 1911 led by Sun Yat-sen, and to some extent, they formed a joint force to break the shackles of feudal autocracy for thousands of years:
First of all,
The untimely constitutional monarchy reform and the just right Wuchang first meaning
The intersection of righteousness and interests aggravated the collapse of feudal autocratic society, especially when the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty could not benefit most people.
At that time, society hoped for a more violent revolutionary impact. Second, Sun Yat-sen is a well-deserved leader of the Revolution of 1911. reform
The spirit of commanding party member not to be afraid of sacrifice and advance wave after wave was an important factor for the success of the Revolution of 1911. As Liang Qichao said: "Wuchang
With a gunshot, the provincial consultation bureaus held a meeting and issued a declaration for ten days, occupying the store for more than 200 years.
The shopkeeper then obediently handed the whole book over. "This is the result of the conscious heart of the whole country, and it will emerge together. Third, the country.
The key to the success of family reform is to see if it can benefit most people. Although the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty also involved agriculture,
But its main content is to hold agricultural schools and agricultural experimental fields, introduce and cultivate new varieties.
These are far from enough to improve the lives of farmers. On the contrary, "the more new policies, the heavier the cost; The more complicated fundraising, the more people's livelihood. "
In a word, China, which was in extreme poverty and national humiliation, needed a great change, and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty promoted the development of China to some extent.