First, the main characteristics of Xixia porcelain
Xixia porcelain is divided into thickness. Coarse porcelain means that the tire soil has not been washed, the tire soil contains certain sand particles, the tire color is red, and the wall of the device is thick. The main vessel shapes are urn, cylinder, pot and so on. After washing, the fine porcelain tire soil has fine tire quality, light yellow or gray tire color and slightly thin wall. The main shapes are bowls, plates, cans, pots, bottles, hooks and other household appliances and building materials such as tiles and dripping water. The glaze color of Xixia porcelain is mainly black (brown) glaze and white glaze, but there are also a few green, purple, tea powder and ginger glaze colors. The quality of white porcelain is generally high, and the fine products are obviously more than other glazed porcelain. The appearance of this phenomenon may be related to Xixia people's worship of white. The types of Xixia porcelain can be divided into household appliances, stationery, entertainment supplies, sculpture works of art and building materials according to their uses. Common vessel shapes include bowls, plates, pots, bottles, jars, pots, lamps, tent hooks, inkstones, bells, bull heads, chess pieces, tiles, dripping water, providers, camels, horses, chickens and ducks. In addition, there are many models of camels and horses unearthed, which shows that camels and horses can be turned over for mass production at this time. This shows that Xixia porcelain has been widely circulated as a commodity in its territory. According to incomplete statistics, from 1956 to 1986, hundreds of Xixia porcelains were unearthed in Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Qinghai, which is a good proof.
According to the data published by archaeological investigation, the kiln sites for firing Xixia porcelain are mainly concentrated in the western suburbs of Yinchuan and Lingwu County in Ningxia, and a Xixia ancient porcelain kiln site has also been found in Wuwei, Gansu Province, which is the farthest ancient porcelain kiln site in the northwest border of China. Xixia Porcelain Kiln is located in the desert area of northwest China, and is managed by the Tangut. Therefore, its product modeling design, decorative theme and decorative techniques all show strong national style and characteristics. When these national styles and characteristics are gathered together, the characteristics of Xixia porcelain are formed. Porcelain rich in Xixia national characteristics is highlighted in the following three aspects:
1, novel and unique in shape.
There are many kinds of porcelain in Xixia, among which carved glazed flat pots, four-series bottles, shed hooks, spinning wheels and cow heads are unique. Their modeling design is closely related to the nomadic life of the Tangut people. Flat pots are made from early to late, with a large number of products and exquisite production, which are unprecedented in other porcelain kilns except Xixia, and are the most representative and typical porcelain in Xixia. There are two kinds of flat pots, the larger one is flat pot, with round feet, small mouth, short neck and flat abdomen. It is made of two shallow abdominal basins butted and bonded, and the joints are often bridged by additional piles. There are two ears or four ears on the upper and lower sides of the abdomen, and there is a round foot in the center of the abdomen. The pot has a reasonable design, a big mouth and a big belly, and the wine, water or milk contained in the pot is not easy to overflow. Round feet are placed in the center of the abdomen. As long as you shut your mouth, you can put the pot flat, so the center of gravity is low and the leg support is safe. There are ears for wearing belts on the abdomen, and the tied pot is attached to the horse's back, which is safe and convenient to carry when traveling and hunting. Another kind of small flat pot, similar in appearance to the big flat pot, has no round feet, light posture, ears in the abdomen, and is simple and practical to wear and carry. The flat pot, regardless of its size, is reasonable in design and exquisite in production, which embodies the intelligence of the Tangut people.
Four-series bottle (multi-series bottle), with small mouth and round lips, oblique neck and shoulders, long round abdomen, flat feet and symmetrical four ears (or more ears) when the shoulders and abdomen are connected, is an ideal instrument for holding water and milk. If you wear it with multiple ears, you can carry it with you, which is simple and practical.
Porcelain bells and hooks are characteristic products in Xixia porcelain, and they are also essential products in nomadic life. At that time, the Khitan people in Liao country who coexisted with Xixia were nomadic people in northeast China, and bronze bells, hooks and other artifacts had been unearthed in their jurisdiction. Xixia is located in the northwest desert, rich in coal resources and lacking in copper and iron minerals. Xixia people thought of replacing metal bell hooks with porcelain bell hooks according to local conditions, which should be a pioneering work. It not only skillfully solves the difficulty of not having metal products, but also creates new ideas for the porcelain industry.
The bull's head ring is a kind of porcelain ring, which looks like a bull's head, so it is called the bull's head ring. It has two holes in the front and a hole at the top, which can make a wonderful sound when blowing. Tauren fish, as a musical instrument, is deeply loved by grassland people. Its excavation not only shows the innovative wisdom of Xixia people, but also shows the emotional world of northwest nomadic people pursuing a better life.
There are a large number of building porcelain in Xixia porcelain, such as tiles, pipe tiles, dripping water and various ridge tiles. Most of the building components are plain-fired, some tiles and dripping water are hung with yellow glaze, and black glaze is often applied to the roof decoration. What is particularly worth mentioning is the white glazed tile, which is exquisitely made, with fine tire quality, basically the same width from top to bottom, the same thickness, slightly curved section and slightly convex surface. Hang white cosmetic soil before glazing. The glaze is white, blue and shiny. White glazed tiles vary in size and the overall specifications are consistent. The excavation of a large number of building materials in Xixia porcelain not only provides valuable physical materials for the study of Xixia architecture, but also shows that the social, economic and cultural life of Xixia people is undergoing fundamental changes.
2. Decoration technology
The decorative techniques of Xixia porcelain include glaze carving, flower carving, decorative earth carving, glaze carving, decorative earth carving, a small amount of printing and white glaze yellow-brown color carving. Among them, glaze carving is mostly used for black (brown) glaze ware, and the carved part exposes the color difference between tire color and glaze color, which plays a decorative role. Carving is to carve patterns on the dry carcass with a knife before glazing, and then apply transparent glaze. Because the carcass is dark blue and light blue after firing, the contrast of fetal glaze is not very clear, so the number of porcelain carvings is small. Glaze carving and cosmetic clay carving are very common in Xixia porcelain. In the early Northern Song Dynasty, Cizhou Kiln used glaze carving techniques, such as black carving pillows and cans. Later, some kiln mouths in the Central Plains also used this method to decorate porcelain, but the proportion was not large. Xixia Lingwu Kiln was widely used when it inherited the craft of Cizhou Kiln. Pots, bottles, cans and bowls are mostly decorated with flowers, which are quite creative in expression techniques. To sum up, there are three points: first glaze the rough tires, then draw patterns according to creativity, remove the land outside the patterns, and expose the true colors of the tires. Secondly, white cosmetic soil is hung on the thick tire, and then patterns are drawn, and then the cosmetic soil other than the patterns is carved out and glazed with transparent glaze. After firing in the kiln, the dark ground presents a white pattern, which is simple and beautiful. Third, use the same object with and without cosmetic soil. Some are carved with brown glaze, the bottle is thick, the shoulder width is inclined without hanging makeup soil, and the abdomen is thin. Pick out a large peony flower to expose makeup soil and decorate it near the foot for a week. This decorative design is novel, the carving technology is exquisite, the color contrast between shoulders and abdomen is ideal, the pattern is distinct, and there is an unexpected decorative effect.
In addition, the most prominent feature of Xixia porcelain is the use of decorative porcelain. Opening the light is to express the ancient ancestors' understanding and feelings of light by artistic means. This decoration was first used as a pillow decoration in the form of white glaze and black color in the Northern Song Dynasty, and the contrast between black and white was very striking. In Xixia porcelain, pots, bottles, cans, bowls, basins and bowls all need to be lighted, and the proportion is incomparable to other kiln mouths, and the lighting is eclectic, diamond-shaped and even arc-shaped. Carving is used in the opening, that is, the ground outside the pattern is carved out at the beginning to reveal light tires, and the opening is covered with ramps or water ripples to highlight the shallow relief feeling of the opening, which has excellent artistic effect.
Step 3 decorate the theme
The decorative themes of Xixia porcelain are rich, including plant patterns, animal patterns, decorative patterns and decorative patterns reflecting folk customs. Peony is the most common plant pattern, which is divided into three types: wrapped peony, strung peony and broken peony, and is mostly used in flat pots, warp bottles and deep-bellied pots. A small number of lotus patterns, chrysanthemum petals and pomegranate patterns are used for warping bottles or dripping water. Animals are fish, ducks, bees and deer. Among them, the deer with peony or lotus is very interesting. Deer are animals, and lotus peony symbolizes good luck and wealth. Xixia people skillfully combine deer with lotus flowers and peony, expressing good wishes while showing Xixia people's rough mind and unrestrained feelings. Although there are not many subjects that reflect the customs of folk life, they have quite national characteristics. For example, a bottle with a small mouth and a deep belly unearthed in Lingwu kiln has a horse carved in the center of its abdomen, with a blooming lotus flower and a flag erected on it. There is a running hound in front of the horse, a fat goose struggling in front of the dog, an eagle spreading its wings and a rabbit running for its life in front of the eagle. The horse's back seems to be engraved with a boot and a boot pad. Boots and boot pads embody the idea of going to the ancestors after death. The whole picture of the jar is pure and naive, extremely vivid, which truly reflects the romance and joy of the hunting scene and nomadic life of the Tangut people, and hopes to enjoy life as before.
During the Song and Jin Dynasties, baby ornaments were popular in the northern kiln mouth, led by Cizhou Kiln. The babies were tender and sweet, which represented people's pursuit of a better life in the future and were very popular. There is also a piece of residual porcelain with baby patterns unearthed from Lingwu kiln in Xixia. The baby is bald. In addition, some male donors unearthed in this kiln are bald, which is obviously different from the Central Plains and other ethnic minorities. According to the record of "Continuing the History as a Mirror" (volume 150), "Yuan Haowen made a bald order at the beginning, and made China people bald first. Three days later, Xu Zhong killed him. " Li Yuanhao's baldness is deeply rooted in people's hearts, which is also confirmed by the decorative theme of Xixia porcelain.
Second, the relationship between Xixia porcelain and Cizhou kiln
The excavation of Lingwu Kiln in Xixia shows us the true face of Xixia porcelain, among which the black (brown) glaze carvers are strongly influenced by Cizhou Kiln, the largest folk kiln in the north, except for some white ones. In order to find out the relationship between them, the Xixia porcelain unearthed from Lingwu Ciyao Baoyao and the porcelain unearthed from Guantai Kiln, the central kiln of Cizhou Kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty were briefly compared:
1, object modeling:
Cizhou kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty is rich in products. In addition to daily bowls, plates, cans, stoves and bottles, we also produce porcelain flower-tipped bottles and jade pot spring bottles. Some of the above shapes can also be found in Lingwu kiln in Xixia. Black glazed ear jar is a common utensil in Cizhou kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty, with straight mouth, round lips, bulging belly and flat feet. Ear jars similar to black glaze were also found in Lingwu early kiln, but the mouth was slightly closed and the abdomen was slightly round. (Photo 10) White glaze furnace is a representative innovative product of Cizhou kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty. In the early stage, it was small mouth, wide and flat edge, deep and round belly, and in the late stage, a wide-mouth three-legged furnace appeared. Similar black glaze can be found in the first phase of Xixia, and the gourd bottle is a kind of ware commonly produced in Cizhou kiln system in the north, named after it looks like a gourd. Cizhou kiln gourd has two ears, and Xixia gourd has no ears, which seems to be convenient for tying the waist and more in line with nomadic life customs. Flower ware is an innovative display porcelain fired in Cizhou kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty. It was flat at first, but there was a whole circle from the end of the Northern Song Dynasty to the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, and the shape gradually became higher, elegant and beautiful. The modeling characteristics of Xixia flower-shaped bottle were later than the Northern Song Dynasty and synchronized with the Jin Dynasty, but the style of Cizhou kiln was obvious. As a display porcelain, Yuhu Spring Bottle was produced in some kilns in the Northern Song Dynasty. The spring bottle of jade pot in Cizhou kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty has a long neck, a round belly and fullness. The maximum abdominal diameter of the spring bottle of jade pot in Lingwu kiln is lower, slightly later, and closer to the spring bottle of jade pot in Cizhou kiln in Jin Dynasty.
Step 2 decorate the theme
The decorative theme of Cizhou kiln is mostly taken from what people see and hear in their daily lives, and the content is very folk. There are flowers and birds and landscapes, among which peony is the most popular flower theme. Peony in the Northern Song Dynasty is characterized by broken branches, and its shape design is set off by flowers and leaves on the left and right sides. 90% of the decorative patterns in Xixia porcelain are peony with broken branches, with large broken branches and flowers set off by flowers and leaves. The design concept is basically the same as that of Cizhou Kiln, with realistic expression and more realistic modeling. (Figure 15)
Looking at the above comparative analysis, it is not difficult to see that the early development stage of Xixia Lingwu Kiln was deeply influenced by the porcelain-making technology of Cizhou Kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty, and some patterns, decoration techniques and firing methods were similar, indicating that the two kilns were closely related and had certain origins. The most typical flat pot, four or more series bottles, shed hooks and plates of Lingwu kiln in Xixia were not found in other kilns at that time. It can be seen that while learning to imitate famous kiln products, Lingwu kiln porcelain makers also pay attention to combining porcelain-making technology with national culture to create a representative new shape suitable for local national customs. In addition, a large number of decorative patterns are decorated by opening, and the strong contrast between fetal glazes highlights the three-dimensional sense of the patterns. The light is covered with ramps or water ripples, highlighting the unique style of the Dangxiang nationality. Therefore, Xixia Porcelain is a wonderful flower with the most regional characteristics and distinctive national style in China Ceramic Garden.
Third, about the origin of Xixia porcelain
The Tangut people who founded the Xixia Kingdom were originally descendants of Tuoba, who were scattered in Qinghai. According to the biography of Qiang people in the old Tang Dynasty, "Tubo was strong in the early Tang Dynasty, and Tuoba's family was gradually forced by it, so he asked to move inward and moved his department to Qingzhou (now Qingyang, Gansu)." After emigrating to Qingzhou, the chances of contact with the Central Plains increased, which greatly promoted the process of feudalism in dangxiang, and they gradually began a new life of semi-farming and semi-grazing. Compared with the Han people in the Central Plains and the Qidan people in the Northeast, the Tangut people are still in a relatively backward state. Tangut people can't farm, let alone burn porcelain. Why can a nation with relatively backward economy and culture suddenly build a kiln to burn porcelain in Xixia? At present, because there is no ancient literature, we can only analyze and infer the origin of Xixia porcelain with the help of historical and archaeological data. On this issue, some scholars speculate that "Xixia briefly occupied the area along the Yellow River in northern Shanxi, but when retreating, it took away some craftsmen from kilns such as Hequ, and later developed Xixia porcelain handicraft industry". This is not unreasonable. Because in history, it is not uncommon for backward ethnic groups to take away the craftsmen of advanced ethnic groups to serve them through looting when they occupy advanced areas. For example, the Khitan people who live in the northeast of China are also nomadic people who live on aquatic plants. In 9 16 AD, the Khitan State (later called Daliao) was established. According to Liao History, Taizu Baoji once "marched south to Yanji ... scattered the families of prisoners to the north of Huangshui" and "built Huangxian County". After the Crown Prince led Wang Yuliu to Dingzhou Prefecture, there were many prisoners. During the reign of Emperor Sejong of Liao Dynasty, Zheng Hongjun was set up in Dingzhou Prison. It can be seen that in the early Liao Dynasty, the Khitans invaded Dingzhou and other places in the Central Plains several times, and each time they robbed a large number of skilled Han craftsmen, which were owned by them and placed the captured Han people in Xinxian County to engage in agriculture or return to their old jobs. Hu Jiao of the Five Dynasties wrote "Trapped in the Lu", which said: "Go to Beijing ... there is a city house in the West Building for trading, but there is no money except cloth. There are tapestries, various jobs, officials, academicians, messengers, teaching workshops, horns, monks and nuns, Taoist priests and so on. , are merged from China, points, travel, discipline and many people ". There must be porcelain makers among the Han people plundered by Qidan. Although it is not recorded in the above-mentioned history books, kiln sites for firing Liao porcelain were found in Shangjing, which was built in the early Liao Dynasty, and Chifeng, near Zhongjing, and a large number of Liao porcelain were unearthed in Liao tombs. Archaeology and historical data confirm each other, and it is an indisputable fact that the Khitans robbed the Han Chinese porcelain makers. Whether the Tangut people invaded the Northern Song Dynasty several times and robbed the skilled craftsmen of the Han nationality is not recorded. During the reign of Zong Yi (A.D. 1049- 1067), Xixia became strong, and Sima Guang's Biography of Sushui contained the content that we should take "work" from the Northern Song Dynasty, but Song Renzong refused. It can be inferred that the Tangut people invaded the Central Plains and did not capture all kinds of skilled Han people like the Qidan people. Later, it became powerful and pursued a luxurious life, only then did it come to mind to invite skilled workers in the Northern Song Dynasty to serve itself. In addition, in the area under the jurisdiction of Xixia, the archaeological investigation did not find the site of porcelain kiln in the early and middle period of Xixia, indicating that Xixia people did not build kiln to burn porcelain before the middle period of Xixia. During the period of worshipping Zonggan Shun (A.D.1087-1kloc-0/39), the war between Xixia and Northern Song Dynasty was reduced and the economy was greatly developed. By the time of Renzong's filial piety (A.D.1139-1193), Xixia became powerful politically and economically, which was the heyday of Xixia. At this time, Liao was replaced by the gold established by Jurchen. A.D. 1 127 Jin wiped out the Northern Song Dynasty and occupied a vast area north of the Huaihe River. In the north, Jin and Xixia lived in friendship for 80 years. At this time, there is no record about whether Xixia people took over the "work" from the Jin people, but it seems that the answer can be found in the archaeological excavation of Lingwu ancient porcelain kiln site in Ningxia. According to the excavation report of Lingwu kiln in Ningxia, the unearthed porcelain can be divided into five periods. The first period is the middle and late Xixia period, that is, the late period of worshipping Sect and the early period of Renzong Sect. The second period is the late Xixia period, that is, 30 years after the decline of separatist drama. The third period was the Yuan Dynasty, and the fourth and fifth periods were later. Because the artifacts after the third phase are all inherited from the first and second phases, but the time is later than Xixia, so I won't say it here. Xixia porcelain began to burn at the end of Chongzong or the beginning of Renzong, that is, when the Northern Song Dynasty just perished and the Jin people just occupied the north of Huaihe River. In order to consolidate the political power, Jin had frequent friendly exchanges with Xixia. Although it is not known whether the porcelain makers were sent to Yinchuan Plain north of the Great Wall at that time, the first phase of Lingwu kiln porcelain was both origin and prosperity, with thick cultural accumulation, long duration and rich types, and some objects were shaped, decorated, decorated and fired. At the beginning of building a kiln to burn porcelain, it was unimaginable that there were many products, good quality and mature molding and firing technology without external technical support. Therefore, from the analysis of the initial firing date and porcelain making technology of this kiln, it should be that Xixia porcelain was successfully fired in the early Jin Dynasty with the technical support of the craftsmen of Cizhou kiln in Hebei Province. Of course, it is not excluded that the porcelain craftsmen in the Central Plains moved their families to remote ethnic minority areas in order to avoid the war. What's more, Guling House (near Lingwu Kiln) is, after all, a fortress city in the northwest, with relatively developed political economy and not far from the ancient capital Chang 'an. Because it is located in Ningxia Plain, with flat terrain and convenient drinking water, it produces coal and is rich in porcelain-making raw materials. Once the conditions are ripe, the porcelain industry can flourish like mushrooms after rain.
Fourthly, the historical position of Xixia porcelain.
Xixia kingdom, as a local separatist regime, maintained close political, economic and cultural ties with the Song Dynasty in the Central Plains. Xixia culture was a national culture developed on the basis of absorbing and drawing lessons from Chinese culture. Xixia porcelain, as an important part of Xixia culture, was influenced by Cizhou kiln system in the Central Plains, and combined with national cultural customs, it created and developed rough and simple porcelain with Tangut national characteristics. In recent years, Xixia porcelain has been unearthed in Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Qinghai. These porcelains are consistent with the early porcelains of Lingwu Kiln, which shows that the northwest frontier region has a close relationship with the Central Plains since ancient times, and also confirms the existence of porcelain-making norms in the northwest region in history.