Chinese name
Ming Wanli blue and white porcelain
dynasty
bright
raw material
Zhejiang qingliao
Early heredity
Jiajing and Qin Long Dynasty Style
Why are the porcelains made in the Wanli period of Daming so precious? During the Wanli period, some official blue-and-white products, fetal glaze and firing technology were not as good as those of Yongzheng Dynasty. But its decorative patterns, like painters and colorful calendars, are unique and worth savoring. In particular, the theme of the figure story painted on blue-and-white porcelain can be said to have laid the foundation for Kangxi's blue-and-white porcelain figure painting in Qing Dynasty. Wanli blue and white porcelain products are mixed; Prices have been different so far. However, some top-grade blue-and-white landscape figures are somewhat influenced by Shen Zhou and other great painters, which are different from those who are too complicated. If we compare carefully, the theme of historical story characters is very popular in New Year pictures all over the Qing Dynasty, and it can be said that it is also inspired by Wanli blue-and-white figure paintings.
The styles of flower beds, incense burners and boxes and jars in Wanli Dynasty are also quite rich. There are three kinds of flower buds: left-handed, angular, halberd and begonia, which are square, hexagonal and melon-shaped, and there are also ears with rings, ears with animals and ears with animal patterns. Incense burners are of bowl type, tripod type, lotus petal type and animal ear type. Boxes are square, round, peach-shaped, silver ingot-shaped, double-layered, four-layered, multi-layered boxes, roof to floor, etc. There are many shapes of cans, such as straight mouth, open mouth and closed mouth. Abdominal shapes are oblate, octagonal and melon-shaped, with different sizes. There are also many shapes of cricket cans, such as cylindrical, oblate, melon-shaped, sunflower-shaped and so on. In addition, there are many kinds of furniture in this period, such as pen insertion, pen container, pen washing, dragon-shaped pen mountain, Yin He water drops, candlesticks and so on. The main patterns of Wanli blue and white are Yunlong pattern, Shuanglong pattern, Flower-piercing dragon pattern, Dragon Boat pattern, Dragon and Phoenix pattern, Moon Shadow Plum pattern, Cirrus Cloud pattern, Miscellaneous Treasure pattern, Banana Leaf pattern, Twisted Branch Miscellaneous Treasure pattern, Ganoderma lucidum pattern, Eight Diagrams pattern and treasure map. Miscellaneous treasures include coral, conch, cross pestle, ancient money, silver ingot, ivory, rhinoceros, fire bead, Fang Sheng, cloud disk and so on. Eight of them are often called "Eight Treasures" or "Eight Auspiciouss", not as rigid as the previous dynasties. Character patterns are mainly used to draw baby plays, ladies, immortals, Laozi going through customs, four concubines and sixteen sons, Buddhism, opera illustrations and so on. In addition, character patterns are often accompanied by rocks, Sanskrit, eight treasures, dragon patterns and so on. The pattern is characterized by distorted figures and Taoist images. Xian Weng's forehead is very high, like a melon. Children have big heads and big heads, which are out of proportion to their bodies. Patterns with Wanli blue-and-white characteristics include doll crawling pattern, lion wearing pattern, ganoderma lucidum pattern, and Tiangong elk map. The picture of the elk in the Heavenly Palace is painted in the heart of the vessel, which means "generosity". In the early Wanli period, most of the blue-and-white porcelain tires were thick except for a few fine tires, and the exposed fetal bones were flint red and rusty spots; The glaze is delicate and thick, with strong gloss and excellent glass texture. In the middle stage, the enamel is thick and moist, and the glaze color is bluish, showing milky white or white. In the later period, although the glaze layer is thin and uneven, the phenomenon of glaze shrinkage often occurs, but the types of porcelain are relatively rich, characterized by being good at all kinds of stationery, such as pen washing, pen container, porcelain inkstone, Yin He, etc., mostly cyan. China ancient porcelain has been very eye-catching in the auction circles at home and abroad, and experts flock to it, and the auction price has hit record highs. But if we distinguish carefully, we will find that the auction price is among the best in the domestic porcelain auction. According to experts, there was a production peak of colored porcelain in Ming and Qing Dynasties, and many official kiln porcelains mainly came from Jiajing Wanli period in Ming Dynasty and Kangxi period in Qing Dynasty. The two styles are similar, but each has its own characteristics. Judging from the imperial kiln works handed down from ancient times, the blue and white multicolored porcelain in Xuande period can better represent the style characteristics of this period. However, according to the historical records at that time, it is difficult for collectors to see the colored porcelain of Xuande kiln, let alone collect it on a large scale. The thirty-seventh year of Wanli in Ming Dynasty 1609, and the year of rooster in China is the first year of the lunar calendar, which belongs to the thirty-seventh year of Wanli in Ming Dynasty.
Wanli (65438+September 4th, 0573-65438+August 18, 0620) is the year number of Zhu Yijun, Ming Shenzong, which was used for ***48 years in the Ming Dynasty, and is the longest used year number in the Ming Dynasty. In the early Wanli period, Zhang led the implementation of a series of reform measures, the social economy continued to develop, and foreign military also won one victory after another. The imperial court presented an atmosphere of revival, which was called the Renaissance in history. Huang Renyu, a historian, wrote the book Fifteen Years of Wanli from the perspective of "Great Historical View", which is a monograph on the study of Ming history. In the first ten years of his reign, because of his young age, his mother listened to politics on his behalf. The Queen Mother handed over all the military and political power to Zhang, and implemented a series of reform measures such as whipping, which greatly developed the social economy and made it "prosperous in Wanli". Zhang's reform during the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty was a political, economic, national defense and other reforms aimed at saving the Ming Dynasty and easing social contradictions.
Starting from maintaining the long-term rule of the Ming Dynasty, some people in power within the ruling class believe that politics must be reformed to find a way to save themselves. In this situation, Zhang carried out new reform measures.
First, politics.
Zhang first rectified the bureaucracy and strengthened centralization of authority. Zhang Chuang created the "Examination Law", which strictly checked the implementation of imperial edicts by officials at all levels, required regular reports on local affairs to the Cabinet, enhanced the real power of the Cabinet, eliminated stubborn officials who were hidebound and opposed to change, and selected and promoted new forces supporting reform, thus making organizational preparations for the implementation of the new law.
In addition, the postal service and civil servants have been reorganized, and his policies are: "respect for instructors, rewards and punishments, and orders", "strengthen public office and interfere in private affairs."
Zhang Shangshu asked the bank to put forward the famous interior office examination method, and the policy was "respect for instructors, reward and punishment, and give orders". Cancel the redundant officials and staff in the * * * institutions and rectify the postal and civil service systems. Finally, Ming Shenzong agreed to this request.
There are two articles in the recitation:
Six departments and Duchayuan set time limits for officials of their own departments, which were registered in three account books respectively. One is kept by the six departments and the Duchayuan as the basic book, the other is sent to six departments, and the last one is presented to the cabinet.
Six, DuChaYuan according to the account book registration, monthly check. For the things undertaken by subordinate officials, each item must be announced, otherwise it must be truthfully declared, otherwise it will be punished as a violation of discipline; Six departments can also register according to account books, requiring six departments to report the implementation once every six months, and offenders are limited to case discussion; Finally, the cabinet also registered according to the account book and verified the inspection work of the six departments.
Second, the military.
In order to prevent the Mongolian Tatar from invading the border, Zhang sent Qi Jiguang to guard the Yumen in Li Town, Liaodong, and built more than 3,000 "enemy stations" on the Great Wall from Shanhaiguan in the east to Juyongguan in the west. He also conducted tea-horse trade with Dahan Tatars and adopted a peaceful policy.
Since then, the northern border defense has been further consolidated. During the twenty or thirty years, there was no major war between the Ming Dynasty and Tatar, which temporarily saved the north from war damage and developed agricultural production. In the seventh year of Wanli (1579), Zhang, on behalf of the Ming Dynasty, established a good tribute-seal relationship with * * III, the founder of the Yellow Sect (Sonan Jiancuo).
In Guangdong, Yin Zhengmao and Ling successively served as our envoys of Guangdong and Guangxi armies, and successively led troops to wipe out Lan Yiqing and Lai in Huizhou, Guangdong, Lin Daogan, Zhu Liangbao in Chaozhou and Li Mao in Qiongzhou. This has played a positive role in stabilizing people's lives and ensuring normal production.
Zhang also set up villages in the southeast coastal areas, trimmed warships and strictly enforced the sea ban. In the early years of Wanli, the border troubles of "invading the north from the south" that had plagued the Ming court for many years were basically eliminated.
Third, the economy.
A whip.
Rectifying the tax system and reversing the financial crisis are the key points of Zhang's reform. He thought that the uneven tax and the amount owed were the result of the land being concealed, so the first prerequisite to solve the financial difficulties was to investigate and verify all kinds of land, so in November of Wanli eight, he ordered a national land survey.
On the basis of land inventory, in the ninth year of Wanli (158 1), Zhang ordered the implementation of "one whip method" throughout the country. This is another major reform in China's tax history since the enactment of the "Two Tax Laws" in the Tang Dynasty, which improved the national financial situation, promoted the development of commodity economy in the Ming Dynasty, and was conducive to the emergence of capitalism.
"One whip method", also known as "one method", mainly includes: unifying the service method and partially "spreading into the ground". Combine Li Jia's original corvee, military service and miscellaneous service into one, and no longer distinguish between silver service and forced service, all of them will be collected in silver. Ordinary people no longer contribute personal services. If the government needs services, it will use money to hire people.
The service fee charged to the people is no longer charged by households, but by households and acres, that is, the service fee is spread in the land, which is called "spreading into the land"; Land taxes and other soil objects should be collected with silver; Calculate the tax amount by county; Tribute money is collected directly by local officials to reduce various ills.
The implementation of flogging is of epoch-making significance in the historical process of the reform and development of the labor system in China.
The implementation of the "one whip method" significantly increased the financial revenue of the Ming Dynasty and improved the financial and economic situation of the Ming Dynasty. The national treasury has13 million mangoku grain, which can be eaten for five or six years, which is a great progress compared with the situation that the national stock of grain was less than one year during Jiajing period.
Fourth, water conservancy.
In the sixth year of Wanli (1578), Zhang recommended and used Pan Jixun, a former prime minister, to manage the Huanghuai River and the Canal. Pan Jixun carried out the principle of "building dikes to suppress sand and attacking sand with water" in river regulation, and soon achieved the expected results. In February of the seventh year of Wanli, the river was completed and the Huaihe River was separated. Invoicing was less than 502,000 yuan, saving the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology 242,000 yuan.
More than 800 miles of long dikes between Xuzhou and Huai 'an are equally winding, and the river flows smoothly. Therefore, "Tian Lu has gone out, abandoned the field for decades and turned to mulberry." When the Yellow River is well regulated, tankers can also reach Beijing directly. "Thousands of ships sail in the river, faster than irrigation and import ships."
Since the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Korean politics has become increasingly corrupt, with numerous parties and frequent party struggles. Party struggle in the late Ming Dynasty refers to the struggle between Lindong Party, official Party and Zhejiang Party in the late Ming Dynasty.
The party struggle in the late Ming Dynasty began with the "Beijing Inspection" in the 22nd year of Wanli and lasted until the first year of Hong Guang (1645). No matter on political or military issues, there are endless arguments.
At first, it was a dispute between the party and Qi, Chu and Zhejiang, and later it evolved into a dispute between the party and Yan. Queen Ming Shenzong has no children, while Wang Gongfei has children who are often lost (that is, Guangzong), Zheng Guifei has children who are often lost (that is, the axe king), and dragons are often lost. However, Shenzong doted on Zheng Fei and wanted to establish a permanent family, but it was too late to establish a prince. Wang Xijue, Shen, Fang Congzhe and others. , big cabinet, followed suit.
Lindong Party wrote a letter against it, and all parties rallied against Lindong. So there are three disputes: the national foundation, the merger of the three kings, the dispute over Wang Zhiguo, the three cases and Li Sancai's entry into the cabinet. For more than 20 years, Lindong Party and its opposition have been arguing over the establishment of a prince.
Finally, he was finally made a prince, and Zheng's power was suppressed to some extent. However, Lindong Party's wish to promote Li Sancai as Prime Minister failed to come true.
During the apocalypse of Xi, the party struggle within the ruling class intensified. At first, party member Ye, Ye, Ye, Ye, Ye and others got the opportunity to be in power, while Zhejiang, Kun and Xuanzong were once excluded.
Soon, the eunuchs headed by Wei Zhongxian formed alliances with Zhejiang, Qi, Chu, Xuan and Kun, and were called "Eunuch Party" by the Party. Wei Zhongxian was a eunuch and a prefect of the East Factory. His minions are five tigers, ten dogs, ten children and forty grandchildren. Inside and outside the court, there are their "friends" everywhere, thus controlling them.
Lindong Party strongly opposes the "eunuch party" coming to power. Yang Lian was arrested by Jin Yiqi for illegally violating the twenty-four evils in Wei Zhongxian. Zuo Guangdou, Wei Dazhong, Zhou Shunchang and Huang Zunsu were also arrested and executed. Lin Dong felt depressed. Emperor Chongzhen succeeded to the throne and killed eunuchs. Under the regime of Nanming Axe King, the struggle between Lindong Party and Yan Nie continued. For example, the struggle between "Fu She" and Ma Shiying and Ruan Dacheng.
Extended data:
After Zhang's death, the innovation since the middle of Ming dynasty came to an end, and the politics of Ming dynasty went into decline. Zhang was convicted of "deceiving the monarch", and his successor, the cabinet minister, wisely preserved his health. Most officials worship power, but only in Nuo Nuo, the style of scholars has decreased. The downfall of Zhang and Zhang also intensified the partisan struggle, and officials set up private parties one after another and gave up their neutral stance, thus losing administrative justice and efficiency. The political situation in the Ming Dynasty was very bad.
From this point of view, although Zhang's reform saved the Ming Dynasty from collapse to a certain extent, he was robbed after Zhang's death. Later, Ming Shenzong was lazy in politics and diligent in searching, which aggravated the corruption of officialdom in Ming Dynasty. Officials are often "left behind" in China, which seriously dampens their enthusiasm for participating in and discussing state affairs.
To continue the Ming Dynasty, at least assume that the Wanli emperor died before 18 years old, that is, at the latest 158 1 year, then the Ming Dynasty may last at least 50 years. The reason is:
First, if Zhang lived for 20 years, he would live to 1602. However, if Emperor Wanli died before 18 years old, that is, 158 1 years ago, even if Zhu Changluo was born the next year, it would be naive. Zhang Juzheng may reject Ding You's spirit of political reform, regain control of the little emperor, or set up another little emperor, which should be able to continue the cause of Zhongxing Daming.
For a long time, the official position has been empty, and the promotion of serving officials has been intermittent, which has contributed to the procrastination of officialdom and opened the door for officials at all levels to take bribes and oppress the people. In Ming Dynasty, the political environment became worse and worse, social contradictions intensified, and problems such as peasant uprising, civil riots, military mutiny and sharp ethnic contradictions became increasingly prominent. The rule of this dynasty has been in chaos.
Examination method is an important guarantee for the implementation of Zhang's decree, but this decree has a natural defect, that is, Zhang's "unreasonable name". The so-called "if everyone wants to do things according to official achievements, the cabinet will delay, and the Ministry will raise it; If there is any concealment or fraud in the cancellation of books in various ministries and institutes, the minister will propose it; If the six subjects hand in this instrument and play it, I will give it. "
The essence of the implementation of this law is that Zhang stole the imperial power, and monopolizing the examination itself is an illegal act.
Judging from the political situation after Zhang's death, it is difficult for any courtier to restore the fatuous government of Emperor Wanli. Even if the emperor doesn't explicitly object, he will waste it with you. If we look at it this way, many of Zhang's political ideals will be difficult to carry out and continue if he dies.
Therefore, Zhang's death had little impact on the demise of the Ming Dynasty. After all, the emperor of the Ming Dynasty was the Wanli Emperor, and the evaluation of the Ming history was that the Ming Dynasty died of this man.
References:
Baidu Encyclopedia-Party Struggle in Late Ming Dynasty