65438+1October 3 1, 16 Ancient tombs dating back 2600 years were discovered in Minya province, central Egypt, and 35 ancient tombs have been discovered in this area. On February 13, the Egyptian archaeological team discovered 83 ancient tombs in Umm Khalejin area of Daehlie-Ye province near the Mediterranean Sea in northern Egypt, dating back to the third period of Nakata culture. On February 19, the archaeological team led by Mamdouh Eldar, the former Egyptian minister of cultural relics, announced that they had found new clues about the tomb of Nefertiti, an Egyptian beauty queen, more than 3,300 years ago after using ground penetrating radar again.
Egypt is a world-famous ancient civilization, and ancient Egyptian civilization is one of the important cradles of human civilization. Egypt is also a veritable cultural relic country. As the Egyptian folk proverb says, digging a stone in an Egyptian residential area may have a history of thousands of years. "New archaeological discoveries in Egypt" seems to be nothing new, because people can hear such news almost every once in a while. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the new year in 2020, Egypt announced three major archaeological discoveries in succession, each of which attracted the attention of the international archaeological community and attracted great interest from classical culture lovers all over the world.
Sima Qian of Egypt and the historical stages of ancient Egypt
Egyptian civilization is as old as China civilization. The territory has been divided and divided many times, the society has experienced various dynasties, and the country has experienced many kings with long or short lives.
In the first century BC, Sima Qian, a historian of the Western Han Dynasty in China, recorded the history of about 3,000 years from the era of the Yellow Emperor to the early years of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty with Historical Records. Prior to this, in the 3rd century BC, an Egyptian priest named Maneteau wrote "History of Egypt" in Greek, which recorded the history from Egypt's unification in 3 100 BC to the Hellenistic Ptolemy Dynasty in 343 BC, with a span of about 3,000 years.
Both Sima Qian and Magnetto lived more than 2,000 years ago, and they recorded the history from 5,000 years ago to 2,000 years ago. Due to the limitation of the times, we can't demand that everything they recorded in the long history has a historical basis and is impeccable. Their records of the long river of history are biased, with legends and possibly literary processing. But their records of many historical events were proved by later generations in different ways. Much of what we know about the history of ancient China and ancient Egypt is based on the shoulders of these two historians.
The manuscript of Manieto's History of Egypt has not been discovered so far, but later Greek scholars copied and quoted a large number of written records of Manieto, which made this famous historical work spread to future generations and became an important historical material for people to study Egyptian history. Maneteau's division of ancient Egyptian history is still widely used in academic circles. Based on the division of Manieto era, Egyptian cultural scholars roughly divided the history of ancient Egypt into several stages.
The first is the period of Badali culture from 4500 BC to 4000 BC. In the middle of Egypt, there is a small town called badri, around which a large number of ancient cultural sites have been discovered. The site shows that around 4500 BC, a clan commune has been formed in Egypt, and human civilization has emerged.
The second is the period of Nakata culture, which existed from 4000 BC to 3000 BC and was also translated into Negada culture or Negadai culture, named after Egyptian towns. This period is the most important prehistoric cultural period in Egyptian history, and great changes have taken place in Egyptian society. The period of nakata culture can be divided into three stages: the first stage of nakata culture existed from 4000 BC to 3500 BC, also known as Amrat culture period. During this period, private ownership and class relations appeared in Egypt, settlements gradually developed into city-States, and the seeds of kingship appeared. The second stage of Nakata culture existed from 3500 BC to 3200 BC, also known as Grce culture period. During this period, private ownership and class were established, polis appeared, and two kingdoms, upper and lower Egypt, were formed, and kingship became the main form of political power. The third stage of Nakata culture existed from about 3200 BC to 3000 BC, also known as Semini culture period. During this period, Egypt moved from chaos to governance, and upper and lower Egypt were unified into a single Egyptian kingdom, which laid the foundation for Egypt's 5,000-year history. Since then, Egypt has entered the dynasty era, so this period is also called the pre-dynasty period or the zero-dynasty period.
Manetto's historical records began from this period. He divided the history of ancient Egypt into three periods: ancient kingdom, middle kingdom and new kingdom, with 3 1 dynasty. On this basis, people further refine it and divide it into three intermediate periods. The middle period in the history of ancient Egypt refers to the period of national division or political chaos between the two stages of national political stability.
Therefore, the history of ancient Egypt is divided into the following periods:
The early dynasties included the 1-2 dynasty, which existed about 3 100 BC-2686 BC.
The ancient kingdom period, including the 3rd-6th dynasties, existed about 2686 BC-2 BC181year. With the development of productive forces in Egypt, pharaohs began to build pyramids, also known as the pyramid period.
The first middle period, including the 7th 7- 10/0 dynasty, existed from 2 18 1 BC to 2040 BC. At this time, there was a north-south division in Egypt. In 2055 BC, Thebes army unified Egypt again.
The Middle Kingdom period was 1 1- 14 dynasty, which existed from 2040 BC to 1786 BC. When Egypt entered a period of stable development, Pharaoh stopped building pyramids and built huge temples instead.
The second middle period included 15- 17 BC, and existed in about 1786- 1567 BC. Egypt once again entered the period of north-south division, and the Hixos occupied the Nile Delta until the Thebes nobles established the 17 dynasty and expelled the Hixos from Egypt. Egypt is unified again.
The new kingdom period was 18-20 dynasty, which was about 1567- 1085 BC. This period was the time when famous pharaohs such as Amenhotep IV, Tutankhamun and Ramses lived.
The third intermediate period was 2 1-24 dynasty, which existed in about 1085-752 BC. During this period, the monarchy collapsed and the country split into two parts. In the 25th dynasty, Egypt was unified again.
The post-kingdom period includes the 25th-31dynasty from 752 BC to 332 BC. Egypt's national strength gradually declined, and the Pharaoh's rule that lasted for 3000 years came to an end, and Egypt fell into the hands of Greece and Macedonia.
Understanding the basic context of Egyptian history can help us better understand the significance of new archaeological discoveries in Egypt.
Archaeological discoveries in central Egypt
65438+1October 3 1 Egyptian Minister of Cultural Relics personally announced the first important archaeological discovery in Egypt in 2020. He announced that Egyptian archaeologists had discovered 65,438+06 tombs, 20 sarcophagus and thousands of funerary objects in Minya province in central Egypt. Archaeological findings are located in the area near the cemetery of Tuna Mountain. A large number of sarcophagus, wooden coffins and utensils unearthed belong to the 26th dynasty of the post-Egyptian kingdom, about 2600 years ago. Archaeologists started the excavation work in this area from 20 17+ 1 1, and now it has entered the third stage. A total of 35 tombs and about 90 sarcophagi were found, including tens of thousands of funerary objects such as amulets made of pure gold and precious stones, and some Kanoppi cans with well-preserved internal organs.
The cultural relics unearthed in Egypt have a history of 35,000 years, so it should not be unusual to find an ancient tomb dating back to 2,600 years ago. What matters is where these ancient tombs were unearthed. Egyptian Minister of Cultural Relics pointed out that Minya Province is still a virgin land in archaeology, and there are still many secrets to be uncovered here.
Minya province is located in the middle of Egypt, which is the junction of upper Egypt and lower Egypt. Most of Egypt's important cultural relics are unearthed in the Nile Delta in lower Egypt, Luxor and Nubia in upper Egypt. There are relatively few cultural relics in central Egypt. Therefore, the Egyptian government has intensified archaeological excavations in this area in recent years. Since 20 18, a large number of archaeological excavations have been carried out in Minya province in central Egypt, and a large number of precious cultural relics have been unearthed. The Egyptian government hopes to promote the development of tourism resources in central Egypt by excavating cultural relics and historic sites.
Uncover the mystery of the former dynasty
The second important archaeological discovery announced by the Egyptian Antiquities Department is the discovery of a huge group of ancient tombs in Umm Khalekin, Daehlie Province, Nile Delta.
Among the 83 tombs found in this batch, 3 tombs date from about 3200 BC to 3000 BC, the third period of Nakata culture. In many tombs in this period, the remains were not lying flat, but curled up in the mother's belly like a fetus. The ancient Egyptians believed that people would go to another world after death. This gesture can help the dead enter that world as soon as possible. There are funerary objects around the ruins, including hand-made pottery, oyster shells, tilapia-shaped, rectangular and round bowls, and items used by ancient Egyptians to make up their eyes. These are for the dead in another world. The pottery coffin found this time is particularly eye-catching. This kind of clay coffin was rarely found in the tomb of Nakata III before. After death, upper-class people usually use sarcophagus, brick tombs or wooden coffins, while poorer people are generally buried in shallow caves. Why the dead here were buried in mud coffins remains to be further studied.
This archaeological achievement takes us back to the pre-Egyptian dynasty 5000 years ago. In that mysterious era of violent social unrest, major events such as city-state scuffle, regime change and national reunification occurred constantly. Along the Nile valley, there are more than 40 city-states called countries in Egypt, and there are constant wars among them for their own interests. Finally, two independent regimes were formed in the upper and lower reaches of the Nile, namely, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt in the upper reaches takes bees as totems, the king wears a conical white crown, and the vulture is the protector. Lower Egypt in the lower reaches takes sedge as a totem, the king wears a red crown, and cobra as a protector.
After years of war, around 3 100 BC, the upper Egyptian king Narmai conquered lower Egypt and established a unified Egyptian kingdom. His deeds were recorded on the famous "Narmai Palette". This is a green slate with patterns on both sides. On the one hand, it depicts Nalmai wearing the white crown of Egypt, with his right hand holding high the symbol of strength and his left hand grasping the hair of the enemy kneeling on the ground. At the foot of the enemy is fleeing, on the other side, wearing an Egyptian red crown, Nalmai inspected the battlefield, in front of the enemy's body. Wearing a red and white crown is a symbol of Egypt's unity.
Some people think that menes was the first Pharaoh to unify Egypt, while others think that menes and Narmai are actually the same person. Whether this king is menes or Narmai, this king who unified Egypt for the first time, the first generation of Pharaoh, has always been worshipped by later generations.
The owners of these three tombs may be the victors from upper Egypt who participated in the joint war, or the victims of lower Egypt who fought to defend their country. I'm afraid their identity will never be known. They crouched quietly in the loess, waiting for today's people to discover the story of that year.
The other 80 tombs in these 83 tombs can be traced back to Butuo civilization.
Butuo culture, also known as lower Egyptian culture, can be traced back to before Narmai unified Egypt. This is one of the most important periods in the history of Egypt, and it is the cornerstone of Egypt's entry into the ancient kingdom. The name of Butuo civilization comes from the city of the same name in the Nile Delta, located in Sheikh village province of Egypt, about 95 kilometers east of Alexandria. Butuo used to be an important city in the north before the reunification of Egypt, located in the main road of land and sea transportation. In the city-state hegemony in the early period of ancient Egypt, Butuo and Sheila Composteli first emerged, and finally the lower Egypt kingdom centered on Butuo was established in the northern delta region, and the upper Egypt kingdom was established in Sheila Composteli in the south. Vagit, the goddess, is the protector of Butuo City and the kingdom of Lower Egypt, represented by cobra. After Narmai conquered lower Egypt and unified Egypt, Vagit and Nai Herbert, the protector of upper Egypt, became two female protectors of unified Egypt.
These 80 tombs give us a better understanding of people's life during Butuo civilization. These tombs are all oval burial pits, and the bones inside are curled up. Some pottery, such as pottery bowls, pots and other funerary objects, were also unearthed. The excavation of dozens of tombs made us deeply feel the prosperity of Lower Egypt at that time. There is a dense population and a rich life here. The owners of these tombs may be businessmen traveling overseas or craftsmen in manual workshops. After their death, these ordinary people look forward to entering a new world.
The destination of beauty queen Nefertiti
On February 19, another major archaeological discovery in Egypt was announced. As early as 3300 years ago, the tomb of the mysterious Egyptian beauty queen Nefertiti had the latest clues. She probably slept behind the tomb wall of her stepson, son-in-law and famous Pharaoh Tutankhamun for more than 3,300 years.
Nefertiti was born around 1370 BC. She was the queen of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV in 18. She assisted the Pharaoh in many important reforms in Egyptian history, such as the religious reform. Nefertiti means "beauty on the road" in ancient Egyptian. She not only has unparalleled beauty, but also is one of the most powerful and influential women in ancient Egypt.
Nefertiti was once revered as a goddess, and her name and portrait appeared in many temples and murals. However, around 1336 BC, she suddenly disappeared from history, when she was only in her thirties.
For a long time, Nefertiti's whereabouts have become a mystery. Even in the tomb of the Pharaoh's husband Amon Hotep IV, there is no trace related to Nefertiti. Some researchers believe that she was expelled from the palace by the Pharaoh because she fell out of favor. The reason why she fell out of favor may be that she has been unable to have children, although she once gave birth to a daughter. Some studies also believe that she and her husband were overthrown by people who could not accept their religious reform.
However, quite a few archaeologists believe that Nefertiti became a regent or even a Pharaoh after her husband's death, so she will not be buried with her husband and should have a separate grave. However, there is no clue about Nefertiti's tomb in the whole Valley of the Kings.
This time, the archaeological team led by Mamdouh Eldar claimed that Nefertiti's tomb was probably hidden behind the wall of the 3,300-year-old Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb.
According to reports, the research team presented their latest research results in an unpublished report submitted to Egypt's Supreme Council of Cultural Relics in early February this year. When they used ground penetrating radar to scan room KV62 of Tutankhamun's tomb, they made an amazing discovery. Just a few meters away from KV62 of Tutankhamun's tomb, they found a mysterious space. This space is parallel to the entrance of KV62, with a height of 2. 13m and a length of 10m. At present, they are not sure whether this space is connected with KV62. If there is no connection, it is probably the tomb of another undiscovered tomb nearby. Some researchers even think that this may be the undiscovered grave of Tutankhamun's wife. But from the vertical point of view of KV62 and KV62, they are more inclined to think that they should be connected. They think the beautiful queen Nefertiti is buried there.
Whether Nefertiti was buried as a Pharaoh and where he was buried are still unknown, and no records have been found. Tutankhamun's tomb, located in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor, Egypt, was discovered by two British archaeologists in 1922. They became the first people to enter the Pharaoh's mausoleum in 3000 years. This ancient tomb is also the only Pharaoh's tomb that has not been visited by grave robbers, and the cultural relics unearthed in it have become the most precious treasure of ancient Egyptian civilization.
DNA research shows that Tutankhamun's father is indeed Amenhotep IV, but his mother is not Nefertiti, but a sister of his father. Nefertiti is Tutankhamun's stepmother and mother-in-law, and her daughter married the young Pharaoh. Tutankhamun was born in BC 134 1 year, and he had the opportunity to live in the same time and space with Nefertiti. He became a Pharaoh at the age of 9 and died suddenly at the age of 18, so he didn't have time to build his own mausoleum. As a Pharaoh, his tomb is pitifully small. For various reasons, it is not impossible for him to be buried in the same grave as his mother Nefertiti.
In fact, as early as 2065438+July 2005, Nicholas Rivers, a British ancient Egyptian scientist, put forward the speculation that there were undiscovered tombs in Tutankhamun's tomb. After analyzing the laser scanning data of Tutankhamun's tomb wall, he found that there were "obvious linear traces" under the murals of the western wall and the northern wall of the tomb, indicating that there was a passage nearby, and there was probably another complete tomb, namely Naftiti's tomb. In the autumn of 20 15, the thermal imaging scanning of the ancient tomb found some anomalies, which supported his view. On October 20 15, 1 1 year 10, Japanese radar experts carried out radar scanning of the tomb, and their equipment showed that there were gaps behind the north wall and the west wall of the tomb, and there were metals and organic substances in these gaps.
But this speculation was quickly questioned. 2065438+March 2006, National Geographic magazine organized a team of radar experts to scan the ancient tomb again like Japanese experts, but found nothing unusual. Later, many archaeological teams scanned Tutankhamun's grave and found nothing of value.
According to the report, the latest scan conducted by archaeologists has found some new evidence that another space does exist. If this discovery can really reveal the secret of Nefertiti's mausoleum, it will be a sensational archaeological achievement in the world.
Some people still question this achievement again. Another former Egyptian minister of cultural relics pointed out that this radar survey technology is immature, and the scanning results of using this technology many times before are disappointing. He still disagrees with the conclusion of the report.
Whatever the final result, this report has brought people new hope. After all, Egypt is a place where all kinds of archaeological miracles can happen.
Expectation and thinking
At the beginning of 2020, the three major archaeological discoveries announced by Egypt came from the upper, middle and lower regions of ancient Egypt, belonging to different times, and it is no exaggeration to describe them as brilliant. These archaeological discoveries provide a new subject for the study of Egyptology. As a special knowledge to study ancient Egyptian civilization, the research scope of Egyptology generally started from the unification of Egypt in 3 100 BC. The archaeological discoveries of the pre-dynasty and Butuo civilization further enriched the research content of Egyptology. The excavation of Minya province provides new data for the study of post-Egyptian dynasty. The research progress of Nefertiti provides new clues for solving the mystery of Egyptology.
People are full of expectations for the new archaeological discoveries in Egypt.
Interest in ancient civilization comes from human's respect for their own civilization history. Ancient Egyptian civilization is an important part of human civilization and has a far-reaching influence on later Greek civilization and Roman civilization. Exploring the mysteries of ancient Egyptian history and culture not only satisfies people's curiosity, but also enables us to further explore the origin of the country, the origin of writing, and the development process of social form, religion, science and art, looking for the imprint left by human beings in the long history. The new archaeological discoveries in China and other countries in the world can make us think more about where human beings come from and where they are going.
(Author: Professor Yin Yali of Beijing Foreign Studies University)