1.
The concept and characteristics of the country
The concept of the country discussed by Engels generally has two points, "First, it divides its citizens according to regions"; "Second, it is the public "The establishment of political power", the former constitutes the "basic unit of the country", and the latter "is no longer directly consistent with the residents themselves organized into armed forces."
However, regarding ancient Chinese history, Engels’s discussion has certain limitations. For example, “dividing its citizens by region” does not conform to China’s actual situation. Engels based his analysis on the example of classical ancient European society. Conclusion. As a sign of discussing or measuring the formation of a country, the second point, "the establishment of public power", can be used as a sign of the formation of a country. Because as the main sign of the formation of a country, it is the establishment of public power. Establishment, Engels himself also emphasized this point when discussing the emergence of the Athenian state.
German Roman Herzog's book "The Ancient State—Origins and Forms of Governance" also proposed that what can really be used as a standard for identifying a country is the long-established ruling institution. This ruling institution , which is what Engels called "public power", there is no difference between the two.
Professor Xie Weiyang made special research on early countries, especially early Chinese countries, and proposed that early countries had the following characteristics: First, early countries had a centralized supreme political power. The center of power, also known as the ruler or the ruling group.
He borrowed the words of R. M. Keesing: At the top of this system is a king. The king formally rules the entire society. He has both political authority and sacredness. The king authorizes the leader to manage. Various places.
Second, early states had administrative and political institutions suitable for the implementation of their central power, including official offices, armies, prisons, etc.
One of the signs that a society has formal administrative institutions is taxation. Without taxation, the state apparatus cannot be maintained.
Third, social stratification in early countries was highly developed.
Social stratification is roughly equivalent to what is commonly known as "class differentiation", with the subtle difference that it does not yet affirm that social differentiation has led to the creation of real classes.
Fourth, early countries had the concept of ruling over a fixed area, that is, early countries had a territorial concept.
It has jurisdiction over anyone living within its territory.
Fifth, early countries had a national ideology that supported their legitimate dominance. This ideology was public and had a huge influence on the public.
In addition, early states evolved directly from primitive societies and were the initial stage after this evolution occurred③.
From a political point of view, "public power" or ruling institution, that is, "state form", includes two aspects, namely, state management form and state structure form. The form of state management mainly refers to the organizational form of state power, which is what we usually call the "polity"; the form of state structure refers to the form of mutual relations between the whole and parts of the country, and between central agencies and local governments.
2. Understanding and identification of China’s state formation
From the above descriptions of state formation, we can clearly have a correct understanding and identification of China’s state formation
The formation of the Chinese state and the comprehensive establishment of the political and economic system was the Qin Dynasty, but its formation process took place in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period.
The establishment of the ancient Chinese state was the Xia Dynasty, and its formation process should be before the Xia Dynasty.
Based on Professor Xie Weiyang’s explanation of the state, we can compare it with the general principles of state formation
General state China
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Tribal federation at the center of political power
Political institutions, tribal hereditary bureaucracy
Highly stratified society, highly developed criminal law system
Early countries had territorial concepts, tribal areas and hunting and pilgrimage systems
National ideology and national religious forms
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Here we can clearly see the context of the formation of the Chinese state (the ongoing Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasty projects and the Chinese civilization exploration project are currently looking for more evidence)
First, the background of early Chinese civilization was the alliance between tribes.
"Historical Records: The Chronicles of the Five Emperors" says: "At the time of Xuanyuan, the Shennong family declined.
The princes invaded and attacked each other and brutalized the people, but the Shennong family could not conquer it.
So Xuanyuan was accustomed to using fighting in order to conquer without enjoying it, and the princes and guests came to follow him.
"
"Chiyou was the most violent and could not be attacked; Emperor Yan wanted to invade the princes of Ling, and the princes returned to Xuanyuan. ”
The Xuanyuan clan refers to the Huangdi clan or tribe. Chiyou may belong to the Dongyi Group, while Yandi belongs to the opposition forces within the Yanhuang Group.
The famous “Huangdi vs. Chiyou” in history and The "War of Yan and Huang" is a reflection of this historical scene:
"Xuanyuan cultivates virtue and inspires troops, governs the five qi, performs the five arts, pacifies the people, conquers the four directions, teaches bears, braves, and tigers, To fight Emperor Yan in the wilderness of Banquan.
Fight three times and then get your ambition.
Chiyou rebelled and did not use the emperor's order, so the Yellow Emperor sent troops to the princes to fight with Chiyou in the wilderness of Zhuolu, and then captured and killed Chiyou. ”
To a certain extent, the formation of the country is not just the result of irreconcilable class contradictions, but with the development of civilization, it must continue to carry out the process of packaging and ordering. This "ordering process" is the preparation for the formation of a country.
Second, the tribal domain and hunting system
During the Five Emperors period, tribes had jurisdiction over tribes, and each tribe was relatively fixed. People live in a certain area, so this kind of country has the element of geographical rule to a certain extent.
That is to say, all tribes living in a specific settlement area must obey the jurisdiction of the emperor, unless His tribe left the territory of the Luolian Alliance.
For example, Shun "has twelve states and has two mountains in ten", and "Yu's traces are divided into nine states". > It is unrealistic to mechanically understand "Jiuzhou" and "Twelve States" as "dividing citizens by region", because people at that time lived in tribes and moved with tribes.
Due to this. Is this the reason? Why did our ancestors repeatedly claim that Yu was the Kyushu and Shun was the Twelve States? There may be a reason for this.
The so-called Jiuzhou and Twelve States are a kind of division of tribal areas, and each tribe has its own. They have their own general sphere of influence, and the identification of territorial boundaries is necessary to maintain inter-tribal order.
The essence of "Yu Zuo Jiuzhou" is to divide tribes by region.
Tribe is one of the important features of the ancient Chinese state.
The reason why "Emperor" is supported by various tribes is that he maintains order among tribes, and one of the important systems for maintaining order is hunting.
The hunting system was established during the reign of Shun.
According to "Shangshu Yaodian", starting from the time of Shun, "hunting tours have been carried out every five years", and the schedule of hunting tours is relatively fixed:
"In the second month of the year, Patrolling (hunting) in the east, as for Daizong, Chai
Look at the mountains and rivers, pay homage to the east queen... practice five rituals, five jade, three silks, two lives, and one death.
Like the five weapons, the soldiers are restored. "
"In the fifth month, we will patrol to the south. As for Nanyue, we will be like Dai Li."
"In the eighth month, we will patrol to the west. , As for Xiyue, it is as before."
"On the first day of the twelfth lunar month, as for Beiyue, it is as before."
"Historical Records of the Five Emperors" also has similar records. "Five years old, five hunting tours, four dynasties after the group".
Zheng Xuan explained: "In the year of the hunting tour, the princes met under Fang Yue; during the four years, the princes from all directions came to pay homage to the capital.
"From this point of view, " "Hunting" and "hajj" are two aspects of the same system, the former is supervision and the latter is obedience.
It is this system of hunting tours, pilgrimages, and tribute payments from tribal states to the emperor that constitute the political relationship between the emperor's tribe and the ruled tribes.
The hunting system is an extension and politicization of the division of tribes by region.
Third, the creation of the bureaucracy
The bureaucracy began to be created around the time of Shun.
According to the records of "Historical Records: The Chronicles of the Five Emperors", after Shun inherited the throne, he saw that Yu, Gaotao, Qi, Houji, Boyi, Chui, Yi, Pengzu, and Kui had made outstanding achievements since Yao, but they did not I felt something was wrong with having official positions, so I started to set up hundreds of officials.
When appointing officials, it was not Shun who was the emperor who had the final say, but was recommended by the tribes and then decided by the emperor. For example, Shun asked the four mountains: "Is there anyone who can improve the mediocre and beautiful Yao?"
"Everyone recommended Bo Yu as Sikong, and he has great merits as an emperor." Shun agreed with everyone and said to Yu: " Oh, yes! Yu, you are in peace with the soil and water.
"Yu knelt down and kowtowed, and wanted to give up the post of Sikong to Hou Ji, Qi, Gaotao and others.
Shun decided: That’s it, you accept the appointment! The situation of other official appointments is roughly similar to this. Those appointed successively include: Qi was appointed Hou Ji, Qi was appointed Situ, Gaotao was appointed scholar, Chui (Jue) was appointed the official, Yi was appointed Si Yu, Boyi was appointed Zhizong, and Kui was appointed. It is a code of music, and the dragon is a source of words.
It is said that 22 people were appointed at that time.
After the establishment of the bureaucracy, the country's politics showed an unprecedented scene of peace:
"Gaotao was the Dali, and the people were in peace; Boyi presided over the ceremony, and everyone from top to bottom was salty. Let; be the master of the craftsmen, and all the work will be successful; benefit the Yu, and the mountains and rivers will be improved; abandon the Ji, and all the valleys will be prosperous; the contract will be the master of Situ, and the people will be harmonious; the dragon will be the guest, and the people from afar will come... The merits of Emperor Shun will be honored within the four seas. … All Mingde in the world began with Emperor Yu.”
The “Mingde” mentioned here refers to the great changes in social order brought about by the establishment of bureaucracy, which brought society into an unprecedented state. The realm of civilization.
The characteristic of this kind of bureaucracy is "Shiguan", which is commonly known as "Shiqing Shilu" or "Qingqingzulu".
The leader is the tribal leader of the Zhou clan. After the father dies, the son succeeds, and it is passed down from generation to generation.
Here, the official functions of the country are shared by various tribes, which are not only subject to mutual evaluation by various tribes, but also subject to the supervision and restriction of the emperor.
When it came to Gaotao, this good situation was even more brilliant: "Jun Yi is in the official position, hundreds of officials are teachers, hundreds of workers are in time, caressing the five stars, and the common people are condensing."
Fourth, the establishment of the penal system
Shun also established a penal system when he was in power.
"Shangshu·Yao Dian" said: "Xiang is punished with a code, five punishments are forgiven, a whip is used as an official punishment, a beating is used as a teaching punishment, and gold is used as a ransom.
The disaster is everywhere Forgiveness, punishment for thieves.”
Fifth, the establishment of state religion
According to historical documents, the construction of state religion in ancient China began in the Zhuan Xu period.
According to the "Historical Records: The Chronicles of the Five Emperors", Zhuanxu "records time with the image of the sky, relies on ghosts and gods to regulate righteousness, regulates qi to educate, and cleanses and honors to sacrifice."
These few sentences are concise and comprehensive, clearly recording that the relevant sacrificial system was established at this time, and giving the sacrificial system corresponding connotation.
The tribe that took over the dominant position after Zhuanxu was the tribe represented by Emperor Ku.
According to "Historical Records: The Chronicles of the Five Emperors", Zhuan Xu's career continued to be steadily promoted during the Emperor Ku's period, "Welcoming and seeing him off throughout the days and months, and respecting ghosts and gods."
Welcoming the sun and sending off the moon refers to the creation of the calendar of Xian, Wang, Hui and Shuo, and the establishment of a system of welcoming the sun and sending off the moon.
The specific situation is vividly reflected in the religious activities of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties.
By the time of Emperor Yao, the construction of the national religious system had been further developed.
Both "Shangshu·Yao Dian" and "Historical Records·The Chronicles of the Five Emperors" have detailed records of this. The text in "Historical Records" is smoother, and is quoted as follows:
"It is Ming Xi and He, respect Haotian, count the sun, moon and stars, and teach the people the time.
Ming Xizhong lives in Yuyi, called Yanggu.
Jingdao. Guide) Sunrise, then Chengdong Zuo.
At midday, the star bird is in the spring of Yin Dynasty.
According to the folk analysis, the word "bird" is "Xi". Uncle, lives in Nanjiao (suburb).
I will pay tribute to Cheng Nan.
Riyong, Xinghuo, is the reason for the people. , Birds and beasts, Xige.
Deun Ming and Zhong lived in the west, called Shigu.
When the sun entered, they headed west.
In the night, the stars are empty, which is the Mid-Autumn Festival.
The people are in trouble, and the birds and animals are flying.
The days are short and the stars are out, so it is the middle of winter.
The people are angry, and the birds and beasts are feathered.
The year is three hundred and sixty-six, so it is a leap month. It is the fourth o'clock.
All officials are sent to the letter, and all the efforts are made. "
This text details the time of Yao and further developed the calendar system from the process of welcoming the sun and the moon. , determines the day, month, and four seasons of each year, as well as the astrology and phenology of each season.
Although it is not appropriate for us to mechanically understand "the three hundred and sixty-sixth day of the year, the fourth o'clock in the leap month", we can be sure that major construction of the calendar was carried out at this time.
In ancient human culture, the calendar system has always been a component of the religious system, and calendar officials are clergy.
When Emperor Yao was old, he ordered Shun to take over the position of emperor.
After Shun became regent, he immediately implemented a strict set of state religion ceremonies.
"Historical Records·The Chronicles of the Five Emperors" said: "Shun was at the Xuanji Jade Scale, and he unified the seven political affairs, and then he was like God, he was greedy for the six sects, he looked at the mountains and rivers, and he argued with the gods.
"Judging from the content of the description, it is very similar to the suburban sacrificial system of the Shang and Zhou dynasties: the gods sacrificed include God, the six sects, mountains and rivers, and other gods, with God as the core.
The suburban sacrificial system is the core of the ancient Chinese state religious system. Its establishment marks the formation of the belief system and the priesthood system, and marks the final establishment of the ancient Chinese state religion.
3. Regarding the characteristics of regional populations during the formation period of ancient Chinese states
Our humanistic ancestor Huangdi lived from about 3,400 years ago to 5,000 years ago. Generally speaking, there are Emperor Yan and Chi You. "Guoyu·Jinyu" says that "The Yellow Emperor was made of Ji water, and the Yan Emperor was made of Jiang water."
Jiangshui is roughly located in the Weihe River Basin in Qishan, Fufeng and Wugong in present-day Shaanxi. Xu Xusheng and others believe that the Yellow Emperor’s original residence was in the northern and central part of Shaanxi, north of Wang, the residence of Emperor Yan. There are also many records about Chi You.
"Yizhou Shu·Changmai Jie" says: "Chiyou is Yu Shaohao", "Zuo Zhuan·Dinggong 4th Year" editorial notes: "Shaohao is empty, Qufu is also".
Qufu is also located near today’s Qufu, Shandong Province.
Generally speaking, Chi You's living area is roughly in the eastern part of Shandong today.
As for Chi You, later generations' evaluation of him was far lower than that of Emperors Yan and Huang. In a nutshell, they devalued him more than praised him.
For example: "Shang Shu Lu Xing" says: "Chi You started to cause chaos, which spread to the common people.
" "Book of Rites of Great Dai: Use of Soldiers" says: "Chi You, a commoner People are greedy... they are greedy but have no great disgust.
"Sima Qian, a famous historian in the Han Dynasty, also accused Chi You of being the most violent and "making trouble with his officials"①.
What’s more, the "Book of Han·Character List of Ancient and Modern Times" simply classified Chi You as one of the "lower fools".
This is not unrelated to my country's monistic traditional view of history. In the 1920s, with the continuous archaeological discoveries in my country, people's understanding of Chi You broke through the old framework.
Begin to objectively examine the relationship between Chi You and Yan and Huang.
In fact, there were many ethnic groups active in the land of China at that time, and everyone needed to fight for survival, and some conflicts occurred between each other. Conflict is inevitable, who should obey whom? Liang Qichao saw this keenly.
He found records from some ancient books that Yao, Shun, Yu and others continued to attack the three Miao in the south, and found that this was not a quelling rebellion, but a conflict between the Chinese group in the north and the Miao in the south. There is no justice or injustice in the competition for survival between barbarian groups.
He believes that from the beginning of the Yellow Emperor to the establishment of the Xia Dynasty by Yu, the most important event in the ancient Chinese history for more than a thousand years was "the growth and decline of the Hua and Miao tribes."
This completely overturned the monism of ancient Chinese history since the Yellow Emperor, believing that the earth was not unified and people were not one clan, restoring the true face of history.
His view can be called a dichotomy, which is to roughly divide the land of China at that time into northern and southern parts, with the Miao ethnic group representing the south and the Chinese ethnic group representing the north.
He is not a professional historian, and this dichotomy is relatively crude and cannot summarize the activities of various ethnic groups in China at that time.
However, it is very valuable that he can break through monism first and pioneer the trend.
Xu Xusheng proposed that the "three major groups" proposed in "The Legendary Era of Ancient Chinese History" are closer to historical reality. He believes that the divisions of ancient Chinese tribes can be roughly divided into Huaxia, Dongyi and Miao There are three major groups.
The Huaxia people are located in the Central Plains area on both sides of the middle reaches of the Yellow River; the Dongyi people are located in Shandong, Anhui and their eastern coastal areas; the Miaoman people are located in the two lakes and Jiangxi areas on both sides of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River.
The three major ethnic groups were in constant contact, first fighting each other, and then becoming peaceful. Their bloodlines and cultures gradually became intertwined, and finally assimilated, forming a fused and higher national culture—Chinese culture.
Does Chinese culture mean that Chinese people are the leaders? According to the previous view of winner takes all, we have always looked at it this way, but it is not the case. The real situation is: different groups still take turns to be the banker.
The Yan-Huang Controversy was an internal dispute within the Huaxia Group and ended with the victory of the Yellow Emperor and the defeat of the Yan Emperor.
The Battle of Zhuolu was a decisive battle between the Huaxia and Dongyi groups. The Yellow Emperor defeated Chi You, the leader of the Dongyi group, and Chi You was killed.
Later, Yao and Shun defeated the Miaoman group, but Shun, who was born in Dongyi, became the leader. The subsequent Xia Dynasty was jointly established by various groups, but the leader was from the south, not from the Huaxia group. people.
The Shang Dynasty was established by the Dongyi people. From the perspective of historical figures, Confucius was born in the Dongyi people, and Laozi was born in the Miao Man, but they laid the foundation of Chinese civilization for thousands of years.
Following Xu Xusheng’s three-part rule, Taiwanese scholar Hu Naian proposed a four-part rule in the book "Chinese Ethnography": the Huaxia Group and the Dongyi Group remain unchanged, the Miaoman Group is renamed the Jingwu Group, and the other Add a Baiyue Group (the book "Chinese Ethnography", published by Taiwan Commercial Press in 1964).
In any case, the formation of the ancient Chinese nation has at least three humanistic ancestors, Emperor Yan, Huangdi and Chi You. The strength of each group waxed and waned, competed with each other, and integrated with each other. By the Qin and Han Dynasties, various groups on the land of China It has merged into a mixed nation - Huaxia
4. Characteristics of the Xia, Shang and Zhou countries
In the history of our country, the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties have entered the period where there are written records. In the era of civilization, a basic country has been formed since the Xia Dynasty. After the development of slavery in the Shang Dynasty, slavery reached its heyday in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Generally speaking, from the Five Emperors to the Three Kings, it was the disintegration of China's primitive society and the emergence of the country. Period.
In the tribal alliance before Yu, the form of "abdication" was always adopted. Although Yu gave up the throne to Yi, Yu's son Qi seized the throne and killed Yi.
From then on, the "age of abdication" in Chinese history ended, and the "hereditary" system of the throne began.
Even though the Xia dynasty was the first dynasty in Chinese history, although antiquities scholars are skeptical about it, archaeological excavation materials prove that the beginning of the "hereditary system" has been discovered at the end of my country's primitive society. Phenomenon.
After repeated struggles between "concession" and "hereditary system" before and after Yu, Yu Ziqi finally established the "hereditary system", marking the entry of our country's history into the period of slavery.
The Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties had typical national characteristics
The Xia Dynasty was a slave country.
Slave owners were transformed from clan nobles and were in a dominant position.
The majority of workers are slaves.
State institutions were mainly tools used by slave owners to regulate and suppress slaves in order to protect their vested interests.
The king is also called the Son of Heaven, and there are "hundred officials" under him. The main officials are the Xi family and the He family, who are in charge of politics, religion and agriculture; there are Mu Zheng, Pa Zheng, Che Zheng, etc., who are in charge of livestock, food, Cars, clothes and other matters; the six ministers are in charge of military affairs.
There are also laws and penalties. The famous prison is called "Xiatai", which is used to suppress resistance.
The state institutions of the Shang Dynasty were more complete than those of the Xia Dynasty.
Mainly manifested in three aspects: palace system, army and punishment.
The King of Shang was the supreme ruler and had sole power.
The Prime Minister was appointed under the king, also called the Prime Minister. He was the head of the officials and assisted the King of Shang in ruling the country.
Under the Prime Minister, there are small ministers, ministers, minor ministers, etc., who manage agricultural production: there are workers, multiple workers, and manage handicraft production: there are divination, history, witches, Yin, etc., which are divination, An official who records events; including Ma, She, Duoshe, etc., he is a military attache who leads the army and horses in battle.
The army of the Shang Dynasty was large and had a certain organization.
Oracle bone inscriptions record that the Shang king sent out 3,000 or 5,000 troops at a time, and sometimes as many as 13,000 troops.
It is also recorded that King Shang organized his army into three divisions: left, center and right. The soldiers were mainly composed of civilians and sometimes slaves.
The local administrative divisions of the Shang Dynasty were based on the original tribes or Fang states, generally called Yi or Fang, and their heads were Fangbo, who ruled the place.
The descendants are called princes.
There were many prisons in the Shang Dynasty and the punishments were cruel. This was a reflection of the development of the slave system.
In the oracle bone inscriptions, there is the word "luck", written as "", which resembles a shackle; there is the word "zhi", written as "", like a person's hands wearing shackles.
The word "prison" is used as "", as if someone is being held in a prison.
The Shang Dynasty had "Soup Punishment", which was a written law. The punishments were very cruel, including corporal punishment, death penalty, and exile.
The death penalty includes caesarean section, beheading (f髫ǎifuhai), roasting, etc., as well as death (ti醤覥), which may be a clan execution.
Overall, the above analysis shows that the ancient times were the period of national formation in China. Xia had the nature of a country and was dominated by tribal alliances. In the early Shang period, it still adopted the form of tribal alliances, and in the later period, it began to become king. And implemented the rule in the form of "Fang Kingdom", the country was further improved, and in the Zhou Dynasty, it adopted the enfeoffment system, which was an alliance of feudal states.