The adaptation of political and economic changes, culture, and science began to be reflected. At that time, Europe was a "theocracy", and the Holy See was in the late 16th century. In control of many countries, the Bible was declared to be the supreme truth, and all teachings that violated the Bible were denounced as "heresies" who opposed theocratic rule and burned at the stake.
For its own survival and development, the emerging bourgeoisie set off the struggle of the feudal system and the superstition of the church, which was also considered humanism. Fighting with weapons that did not stain the theology of ancient Greek philosophy, science, literature and art, this was the Renaissance that shook Europe. The Renaissance first took place in Italy and soon expanded to Poland and other European countries.
At the same time, active business also promoted the development of foreign trade. Driven by the spell "gold", many European expeditions sailed to Africa, India and the Far East. The knowledge of astronomy and geography accumulated from actual observations allowed people to sail across the oceans. Feeling that the popular "Quiet Day" questionable cosmology theory required people to further explore the secrets of the universe to advance the development of astronomy and geography, in 1492, the famous Italian navigator Christopher Columbus was first called a mechanical corrector. Straight music clover? From 1519 to 1522, Magellan and his companions orbited the earth and proved that the earth is round. Therefore, people began to truly understand the earth.
The medieval church, which was under strict control, also underwent a vigorous religious revolution. Catholic doctrine, the Bible that is not in line with the doctrine, the personal will of the Catholic Pope and various theological results, so many believers began to question the teachings and organization of the Catholic Church and initiated actions to return to the "Bible".
Czech patriot, University of Prague, Bishop of Constantinople Jan Hus (1369-1415) publicly denounced the German feudal lords and the Catholic Church against oppression and exploitation of the Czech president, although his The reactionary church was burned at the stake, but his revolutionary activities aroused strong repercussions in society. Under the banner of the Czech Peasants' Revolt in Aarhus, this movement also spread to Poland and Germany. In 1517, Martin Luther (1483-1546) sold the atonement character to the church. In 1521, Luther publicly broke with the Pope. The Diet of Worm exposed the evil visions and established the Protestant Church to support many countries. Poland was also deeply affected.
In such an era of great change and great turmoil, Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473, in the city of Toruń, on the bank of the Vistula River. His father was a wealthy member. , he has one brother and two sisters. When Copernicus was 10 years old, his father died, and he was sent to work at the home of his uncle, the Archbishop. He was a people-oriented person, and he was very close to the progressive Polish intellectuals and had close ties with Italy. The outstanding revolutionary, the humanist Philippe Boonnaxy, was a close friend. When Copernicus was in high school, he informed Cardiff of the Facilities of Humanity with his party, and in 1491, according to arrangements with his uncle, Copernicus studied astronomy and mathematics at the University of Krakow.
At that time, Poland had produced some famous astronomers, such as the Maltese Chlo?l, who wrote a book in 1450 and gave lectures in many countries. . Another example is the famous astronomer Wojciech who had compiled an ephemeris, he lectured at the University of Krakow and was Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy at the Copernican School of the Sun at the Copernican School in Kraków. Cobh University.
Although the Bible does not involve "the earth is the center of the universe", "the sky is round" and other types of astronomical knowledge, however, in the Middle Ages, astronomy had expanded in ancient Greece. , a good official statement of academic theological framework. In order to consolidate the feudal rule, the Inquisition of the Catholic Church burned many valuable scientific works, sometimes burning 20 carts a day. In 1327, the Italian astronomer mined Dasco. The company was burned alive. His "crime" was to violate the teachings of the Bible, which proves that the earth is spherical and humans live on the other side of the earth.
The great doctrine.
"Science has been the handmaiden of theology" for many years, and many theories were distorted and emasculated in the service of feudal rule. In medieval Europe, few people understood the true content of ancient scientific books. At this time, scientists learned an important lesson. Teeth, is to explore ancient cultural heritage.
Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer in the second century AD, summarized the results observed in the previous 400 years and wrote the "Astronomical Collection" (ie "The Great"). ), proposed the "center of the earth theory universe". This theory was accepted and distributed for over 1,400 years.
Ptolemy was at the center of the universe, the earth was stationary, and all celestial bodies, including the sun, orbited the earth. However, people are observing the phenomenon of celestial bodies suddenly speeding up and slowing down. To explain this phenomenon, Ptolemy suddenly said that the equilibrium motion around the earth was not the celestial body itself, but the motion of the celestial body in the center of the wheel. The wheel that goes around the earth is called an "omni" and the small wheel is called a "circle". In order to explain the phenomenon of it being faster or slower, the "circle" is the main outside, adding some auxiliary "circles", and also using the term "virtual wheel", so that the "circle" can move unevenly from the center. The center of the "virtual wheel" is "balance". Ptolemy's ancient far-fetched interpretation was suggested.
However, after many centuries, a large amount of observational data has been accumulated, and Ptolemy's "circle" is not enough to explain the movement of celestial bodies, which requires adding more and more "wheels." In the future As generations of scholars worked on "repairs," the Ptolemaic system became increasingly complex, and the study of astronomy would remain at this level.
"The earth is the center of the universe" is only the basis of "the theologian's sky". Medieval theologians touted Ptolemy's conclusions but concealed Ptolemy's methods: Ptolemy established the theory of mathematical genius in an attempt to discover methods, reasons, and laws related to human wisdom, observation, calculation, and reasoning, which were full of Ptolemaic theory of celestial vitality. Therefore, although it coincides with Ptolemy's "centered earth theory" and the theological cosmology, the two are essentially different. 1 is a wrong conclusion in science, and 1 is an attempt to fool mankind and make feudal rule vancomycin It cannot be a big lie. Copernicus made a correct assessment. He said: "Ptolemy's arrows should be in the same direction. The material is just that the bow and arrows are completely different from his."
Copernicus was very diligent. Study the writings of Ptolemy. He saw the contradiction between Ptolemy's erroneous conclusions and the scientific method. Copernicus was the one who discovered the source of Ptolemy's errors and found the truth.
Copernicus realized that the development path of astronomy should not continue to "repair" the old Ptolemaic theory, but discover a new theory of the structure of the universe. He made an analogy: Ptolemaic scholars, engaged in individual, isolated observation, piece together some "circles" of overlapping sizes to explain cosmic phenomena. If someone looks here and there, picks up the limbs and head, and draws them down, the result will be Not as a person, but like a monster.
At the University of Krakow, Copernicus returned to school and began to think about the rotation of the earth. He said in the preface that the predecessors who later wrote "Celestial Bodies" had an imaginary circle, and the circle was right to explain the phenomenon of the starry sky. He had the right to try to explain the operation of celestial bodies than a circle, which was more suitable in the circle. .
The purpose of Copernicus's observation of celestial bodies was opposite to that of previous scholars. He was not forced by the theory of cosmic phenomena to obey the center of the Earth. Copernicus famously said: "Phenomena guide the astronomer." "He was able to create a new theory - heliocentrism - by making cosmic phenomena, answering the questions raised, and allowing confirmation of the phenomena we observe." His pointed opinions eventually led to revolutionizing astronomy.
Copernicus observations at the University of Krakow are off to a good start. He worked with the famous astrologer Martha Qing Wembley (1433 to 1493) during the Great Survey and submitted to the school the "Star Catcher" and "Three Arcs" eclipse observing instruments to study the vast and endless sky.
Copernicus stopped studying at the University of Krakow for three years to study canon law in Italy. Is this an idea? His uncle service card facility. The Knights of the Cross occupied northern Poland and often violated the border and committed many evil deeds. To fight with them, there must be someone who is proficient in canon law. It was incumbent upon Copernicus to confront the Knights of the Cross. He said: "There is no obligation comparable to the so solemn obligation to the motherland, to sacrifice one's life for the motherland." So he agreed with the proposal of the service card facility. In order to obtain living expenses for foreign fees and long-term studies, he once again accepted the arrangements of his uncle and decided to take responsibility for the living church. Copernicus, in the autumn of 1496, put on his robe and left Italy.
At the University of Bologna in northern Italy, he studied canon law and worked hard on astronomy. Here he met the famous astronomer Dominic Marie, who studied theories related to the moon. The contradiction between his Ptolemaic theory and the actual observed objective phenomena began to be exposed. He found that the Ptolemaic explanation of the moon's movement to zero would lead to an absurd conclusion: the moon sometimes swells and sometimes shrinks, and the full moon is the result of expansion, and the new moon is shrinking. On March 9, 1497, Copernicus and Mary made a famous observation together. When the night is clear, the stars are twinkling, and the crescent moon floats in space. They stood in the tower of St. Joseph's Church, the "Taurus" Aldebaran, to see how it gradually moved closer to the crescent moon and observed the bright stars. "Aldebaran" and the phases of the moon, and there is a certain gap , "Aldebaran" quickly disappeared. They accurately determined the time when "Aldebaran" was hidden, and calculated conclusive data to prove that these gaps were part of the waning moon's food, "Aldebaran" the moon itself. Hidden by the shadow, the size of the moon did not shrink. In this way, Copernicus and Ptolemy opened a gap in the geocenter.
In 1500, Copernicus, due to financial difficulties, moved Rome. A mathematics teacher. The next summer, Copernicus returned to Padua, Italy to study medicine. In 1503, Copernicus obtained a degree at the University of Faro in the church FABO.
At this time, Copernicus was also trying to study ancient texts in order to seek for the heliocentric theory. He looked through various literatures to get his hands on them, and he later wrote: "I sought help in my work." Having spent time with those who founded the discipline, I am willing to bring my findings and their findings to form a whole. "He who studied ancient writings recorded some bold ideas:
"The sky, the sun, the moon, everything stood still, the stars and heavens beyond the earth, the universe is indeed not moving at extremely fast speeds The speed at which the Earth rotates around its axis makes it feel like if the Earth was stationary, the sky was spinning.
"Most scholars believe that the earth is motionless, but Philo and Pythagoras call it spinning around fire.
"The huge and majestic sun stands at the center of this planet. It is not the only master, not only the master who controls the earth, stars and sky. "
These outstanding ancient scholars His opinions were considered "deviant", but Copernicus was like a beacon flying at night, he illuminated the way forward.
In 1506, Copernicus ended his ten years of studying and living in Italy and went to family.
The birth of "Operation"
Copernicus left Italy on a rainy autumn day. The comets that appeared in the sky broke the visions from heaven, and plagues spread over vast areas. At this time, Pope Alexander accidentally drank poisoned wine and was murdered by others. The Italian Church took the opportunity to issue a "warning", deceive and fool the people. Another rare astrological sign appeared in the sky when Copernicus returned to Poland, and the church was also in great activity, leaving the capital, Krakow foul.
The original church announced that there would be "a vision of four consecutive conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter" in the sky. This was a serious warning to God's world. The world would be a false prophet, and floods and plagues would follow. Will cause social unrest and national collapse. Rumors swirl and the rich feel uneasy and want to get rid of the fear of the future; the church of the poor who buys "atonement characters" is declared bankrupt and it is difficult to survive forever. The church extorts cash cows, their location in heaven "installed in his wallet, sold in large quantities" character atonement "to rob the person of wealth. Poland's most prestigious inquisitor Iron Ger said that cashing money can avoid disasters and even people can be redeemed to wash away their sins. His catchphrase was: "Put this money into the tabernacle and go to heaven for your soul!"
At this time, Copernicus and his friends also studied the "rendezvous point" in Krakow for two weeks. Copernicus discovered that the church's claims contained errors in the data and were clearly deceptive, so he and his friends decided to conduct separate observations in different areas in order to work together to expose the evil church tactics.
At the time of the Fourth Cross Bishop's residence, Copernicus was the administrator of the Cross Knight Struggle in the service card facility of Helsberg, where his uncle served, presiding over the busy brother White who still insisted on observing astrology.
The observations confirmed Copernicus’ prediction. The "addition" date, and the difference the Church said, was consistent with Copernicus's predictions - it was one month earlier than Copernicus's friends had also observed in the astrology of the same.
In Helsberg, friends kept urging Copernicus to write an outline of his "heliocentrism" and give it a simple name, called "the hypothesis of the theory of celestial motion" and copy it to some of his close associates and friends. The announcement said: "All objects around the sun, which is the center of the universe, the earth and other planets revolve around the circle of its axis day and night, and revolve around the sun in one year..."
< p>Copernicus's announcement of the outlines of a vast doctrinal system caused much controversy among the friends of the party. Answers to many of Copernicus' questions. At the end of the debate, he quoted the ancient Roman poet Cicero: "There is no purity in time that has caught up with the completeness of the universe." He used this sentence to express a belief that: the universe is complete, Symmetry, harmony, law and order are understandable.The "celestial body hypothesis" is the first cornerstone of Copernicus' theory, but to build a grand theoretical cornerstone on this basis, a lot of preparatory work needs to be done.
In 1512, after serving Kasse, Copernicus left Helsberg and moved the parish cathedral to the monastery, the five-mile castle of Fromenburg on the Baltic Sea, a small fishing port. Copernicus settled in Fromburg and bought castle watchtower. This watchtower is operational, with a triangular roof that slopes forward, almost to the outside wall. The three top windows of the roof house the Copernicus studios. From the lower level bedroom, one can observe every bullet hole. The rooftop terrace, where astronomical phenomena were encountered and observed from all directions with top-floor windows outside, became his observatory. He lived here until his death.
At this time, Copernicus's future book had been named "Motion", and in his opinion motion was the true meaning of life - the motion of everything that exists in the sky, down to the deep sea Nothing is static, everything grows, changes, disappears, and generations continue non-stop. Running this book is to reveal the secrets of nature and, above all, this view of Copernicus, which confirms the existence of the objective world and its regularities, shining with the glory of simple materialist philosophy.
Copernicus made indirect observations on the shape of the Earth many times. On November 6, 1500, he observed a solar eclipse on a hill outside Rome and studied the shadow projection of the spherical Earth. On the surface of the lunar arc, thus confirming the thesis on the Earth, Aristotle settled in Fromborg, where he had been standing on the shore of the Baltic Sea observing sailing ships. Once, Copernicus asked the sailing ship to tie a flash object to the masthead. He stood on the shore and watched the ship slowly transport. He described this observation, saying: "The sailing ship, the flash object gradually decreased, and finally disappeared completely, as if the sun was setting." "This observation led him to conclude: "The sea is round"
On a cold winter night on the wet and foggy Baltic coast, there was no shadow of clouds in the sky. In the blue sky, the stars shine with bright cold light. Copernicus always took advantage of this rare opportunity to put on a fur coat, tighten the hood, and move the instruments to the watchtower on the terrace for all night observations.
The tools he used were all made by himself, three of them a day. The "triple arc" measures the distance of the planets, cut from a cedar pole, marked with ink on the scale, and carved out for aiming. The "star catcher" to measure the position of the moon and planets is a large circle of six tree bars that determine the height of the solar transit "quadrant" of wood, which fills the "level" of the shelf with a graduated wooden ring in the upper right corner. In fact Just a glass tube that holds water. The solar eclipse was originally meant to be observed as the reflection in the water, but in order to reduce the trouble to a watchtower for carrying water in a large square, it broke the routine and switched to a louver with a small hole to reflect the sun's shadow on the wall. Copernicus was making 50 observations before and after the Fortress using simple equipment, recording, including solar and lunar eclipses, the directions of Mars, Venus, Jupiter and Saturn. It is not easy to do these observational telescopes so accurately before they were invented, no wonder, then so admired by many outstanding astronomers.
In the autumn of 1516, the Knights of the Cross invaded Poland's northern border several times. The prestige and scholarship of the church, coupled with Copernicus's expertise, sent him to serve as Eersiding's conservator, and Fu Taijun arrived at a powerful enemy.
In the war-torn years, Copernicus began writing his monumental work - "The Run", in which he arranged a simple observation at the outpost of the castle Eersiding and brought it to the necessary information. On the book's personal homepage, the first volume of the book plan (six out of eight volumes published) is written, but the progress is very slow. This is because the current enemies of Copernicus must go all out to deal with the enemy's provocation and harassment.
In the autumn of 1519, Copernicus resigned from his teaching duties as general manager of production and returned to Fromburg, using all his strength to write "Run". However, the storm of war quickly swept here, and Fort Fulon fell into Before the cross the knights burned the enemy and the Krupps swept, reducing the food supply in an attempt to force the defenders to surrender. By this time, the father's churchmen were fleeing, some even traitors, but Copernicus remained in the city, fighting alongside the defenders supported by the residents. They also built canals, irrigation, locks and water mills designed and constructed by Copernicus, which were of great importance at that time to support war and economic prosperity.
In the fall, Copernicus again served as Eersiding's Patriarch and the Knights of the Cross had occupied many castles near Eersiding. Copernicus took out all the money he kept to support the war effort and personally deployed the defense lines and ascended the city. Supervise the war. The Crusaders attacked the city with incendiary bombs, and the Copernicans covered the enemy's incendiary bombs with wet leather. After five days and nights of fierce fighting, the city still stood, and Archduke Huo Henglun, a knight of the Cross of Fromburg, was angry and set fire to his collection of books, manuscripts and documents. Copernicus always held on to the castle, and Huo Henglun had no choice but to withdraw his troops and agree to a truce. After the war, King Sigismund of Poland rewarded the chief executive of Eersiding, entrusted to Copernicus. BR p> In the autumn of 1525, Copernicus was "on the run", launched by Fromborg. At this time, Anna was born into a housekeeper named Anna. Her exquisite and pure temperament made her Copernicus. Copernicus made a written decision to give up her secular prejudices, and the church denied Copernicus the right to live together and marry. Copernicus, with Anna's help and care, quickly added to the pile of manuscripts on his desk.
The introduction of the "running" bird gives a bird's-eye view of Copernicus's structure of the universe. Enumerating several opinions, at the beginning of the statement, to prove that the earth is round, he then points out that the reason for the earth's cylindrical shape. He said: "All objects tend to unite themselves in such a spherical shape, like drops of water or liquids, which always try to form an independent entity. "The object is spherical because of its weight, which is what the object particles or atoms are. A natural tendency to condense itself into a whole and shrink into a ball. "His answer to this question, a hundred years later, opened the way for Newton's discovery of universal gravitation.
He also wrote this paragraph about atoms: "The so-called atom is the smallest particle that can no longer be divided, They overlap or multiply together, but since they cannot be seen, they cannot immediately form a visible object, but their number can rise to such an extent that it is enough to establish a visible size. "This passage is an idealist statement, and they deny the existence of atoms with the excuse that "atoms are not possible". Instigated by idealists, the "run" in this passage was omitted from publication; more than 300 years after the III version, but no A word running "Principles of Mathematics", Volume II Trigonometry Plane and spherical trigonometry, calculus method pioneered by Copernicus Descriptive trigonometric rules from other known rules of sides and angles. The protrusions of the sides and angles of the triangle. This includes the three-sided linear triangle and the three-sided spherical arc.
The third volume is a table of stars that rotate around the axis of the Earth. The fifth volume discusses the moon, the moon. Copernicus paid great attention to the study of partial eclipses of the moon. He believed that during solar eclipses, people could get a hint of the moon. , the relative position of the Earth and the Sun, from the true structure of the universe. "Because, while the rest of the universe, daylight and nighttime are not anything else but the shadow of the Earth itself.
The shadow forms a cone-shaped end and the cone-shaped moon will lose it if the shadow comes into contact