In what year did the earliest writing in the world appear? Haha, I have already answered this question! !
Sumeier ancient writing clay tablet
About 4000 BC. This is a clay tablet unearthed in the ancient Sumerian city of uruk. This is one of the oldest known examples of writing.
About 3500 BC, Sumerians invented hieroglyphics, which later developed into ideographic symbols and signifier symbols, and basically took shape around 2800 BC. The earliest Sumerian characters were carved on stones. Around 3200 BC, Sumerians began to use clay printing, that is, writing was engraved on a plate made of wet mud and then dried with fire or sunlight. The characters left by Sumerians on clay tablets are also called "cuneiform characters", "nail-headed characters" or "arrow characters" because the strokes are like wedges. Sumerian characters are recognized as one of the most difficult characters, and there is not even a fixed grammar in their characters.
The earliest writing in the world appeared a few years ago. Oracle Bone Inscriptions is one of the earliest scripts in the world.
But some time ago, Ningxia discovered earlier characters than Oracle Bone Inscriptions.
\ Among a large number of independent rock paintings found in Damaidi, Zhongwei, Ningxia, the oldest picture writing in China, which is thousands of years earlier than Oracle Bone Inscriptions, was found. At present, the research results have been verified by Mr. Liu Jingyun, an expert on ancient Chinese characters in Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House. Finally, it is believed that the discovery in the rock paintings of Damaidi may rewrite the history of China's characters.
A surprising number of prehistoric rock paintings are preserved in the Damaidi rock painting belt in the Beishan area of Weining, Ningxia. Its early rock paintings can be traced back to the late Paleolithic period, about 20 thousand years ago. According to the investigation of rock painting experts in Northwest Second University for Nationalities, there are 8,453 individual figures in 3 172 groups of rock paintings in Damaidi, Ningxia, including the sun, the moon, the stars, the gods of heaven and earth, hunting, grazing, dancing and offering sacrifices, etc. Rock painting experts found that the early rock paintings were between 16000 and 10000 years ago by using the dating of Lishi Huang Yi. After nearly two years of on-the-spot investigation and a lot of research and textual research, the pictures and characters in rock paintings were finally verified by Oracle Bone Inscriptions expert Liu Jingyun of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House.
There are still stone tools and pottery fragments of the Stone Age in the rock painting area of barley field and its adjacent areas. This shows that the barley field in primitive society is the gathering place of ancient human life and activities, and it is also the holy place for them to hold sacrificial ceremonies. The research shows that the picture symbols in the rock painting area of Damaidi are the original characters of China, and many hieroglyphs and abstract symbols already have the elements of ancient Chinese characters. The main reasons are as follows: these pictographs have the basic pictographs of China's original characters, and similar images can also be found in Wen Tao symbols of roughly the same period and later Oracle Bone Inscriptions; The complex composed of more than two pictographs has basically possessed the elements of writing, such as pictograph, ideograph and signifier. More importantly, this pictographic symbol is not accidental and isolated in barley rock paintings, but distributed in a star shape.
According to Li, a member of the International Rock Painting Committee and a researcher at the Rock Painting Research Center of Northwest Second University for Nationalities, more than 1500 pictures and characters have been found in a single figure of barley rock paintings, of which only a small part can be read and most can't. /
World: The name "cuneiform" was taken by the British. It comes from Latin and is a compound word consisting of cuneus and forma. This name expresses the most essential external characteristics of ancient Mesopotamian characters. In fact, cuneiform characters, like those of other nationalities in the world, have gone through the development process from symbols to characters.
Cuneiform is a great invention of Sumerians. Sumerian characters eventually evolved from picture characters to cuneiform characters, which lasted for hundreds of years and was completed around 2500 BC.
Archaeological findings confirm that in ancient Mesopotamia, the original appearance of words was not like a wedge, but just some flat pictures. Obviously, ancient Mesopotamian characters, called cuneiform by later generations, originated from hieroglyphics. Archaeologists once found clay tablets engraved with this pictographic symbol in the ancient city of uruk, and the textual research time was around 3200 BC. This is the earliest written record in the world. This writing is simple and intuitive. Sometimes complex meanings and abstract concepts are expressed by combining several symbols. For example, the combination of "eyes" and "water" is "crying", while the combination of "birds" and "eggs" is "life". This kind of writing is pictographic. If you want to express complex meaning, use two symbols together, for example, "sky" plus "water" means "rain"; "Eye" plus "water" is "crying" and so on. Later, it was developed that a symbol can represent many meanings, such as "foot", "walking" and "standing", which is an ideographic symbol.
With the development of society and the increase of people's communication, the things to be expressed are more and more complex and abstract, and the original graphics are more and more unsuitable for people's needs. So the Sumerians reformed the writing. On the one hand, it simplifies the graphics and often uses parts to represent the whole; On the other hand, it increases the meaning of symbols. For example, the symbol "foot" can mean "standing" and "walking" besides "plow", and the symbol "plow" can also mean "plowing" and "people plowing". In this way, hieroglyphics have developed into ideographs, that is, symbolic meanings are not directly expressed by graphics but extended by graphics.
Around 2500 BC, Sumerian language has developed into a kind of syllabic writing, that is, phonetic symbols are used instead of ideographic symbols. Homophones often share a character, and a symbol can also represent a sound, such as the wedge-shaped "star". If it is used to express pronunciation in Sumerian, it has nothing to do with the original meaning of the word "star", but only to express pronunciation. This is also the inevitable result of social development, because since 3000 BC, Sumerians have been fighting for years, and the inscriptions describing the process of fighting for themselves have gradually increased. At this time, we often encounter some proper nouns, such as the captured city and the name of the ruler. In order to distinguish them, phonetic symbols have been used, which is a step further than ideographic symbols. One is that the number of symbols is reduced, and the other is that pronunciation symbols can express things that graphic symbols can't. The sentence meaning expressed in this way is more accurate. After these changes, Sumer's writing system gradually improved. In the process of simplifying hieroglyphics, Sumerians began to gradually replace hieroglyphics with cuneiform symbols, and finally created cuneiform.
Sumerian characters were first written on clay tablets. Carved on a clay tablet, it is only suitable for writing short and straight strokes. Because when writing, you use reed horn or wooden stick horn to press it, the imprint is wider and deeper, and the imprint left by drawing it out is thinner and narrower. In this way, the beginning of each stroke of this font size is thicker and the end is thinner, just like a wedge, which is how the name "cuneiform" comes from. After the wedge became the standard font of words, it was also carved into this shape when it was carved on stones in the future.
At first, cuneiform was written straight from right to left and from top to bottom. The disadvantage of this writing method is that the written words are often erased by the engraver. Later, the glyph turned 90 degrees sideways and changed from left to right to horizontal.
Sumerians invented cuneiform, which is an outstanding contribution to world culture. The Sumerian language system is unique, which is unique in vocabulary, grammar and syntactic structure, and is very different from Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian, which later belonged to Semite language family. But so far, no scholar can solve the problem of which language family it should be incorporated into. Therefore, Sumerian, like Sumerians, is still a mystery. Moreover, Sumerian language existed for a short time, and became extinct language after King Hammurabi of Babylon came to power, so it was no longer common. Only priests use it in religious ceremonies, which is very similar to Latin.
At the end of the third millennium BC, Akkadian of Semitic language family replaced Sumerian language. Akkadians reformed and developed on the basis of absorbing Sumerian languages and characters, and established a relatively perfect cuneiform writing system. Later Babylonian and Assyrian were mainly perfected on the basis of Akkadian.
The spread of cuneiform characters is mainly in West Asia and Southwest Asia. During the reign of Babylon and Assyria, cuneiform characters developed greatly, vocabulary was enlarged and complete, and calligraphy was more exquisite and beautiful. With the spread of culture, other ethnic groups in the two river basins also adopted this writing method. Around 1500 BC, cuneiform characters invented by Sumerians had become a common writing system for ethnic exchanges at that time, and even cuneiform characters were used in diplomatic exchanges or treaties between Egypt and countries in the two river basins. Later, due to the development of commerce, the high Persians improved Mesopotamian cuneiform and gradually turned it into an advanced alphabet.
Where did the earliest civilization in the world appear? A bunch of nonsense. ...
The answer is that the Sumerian civilization in the two river basins was the earliest.
Reference encyclopedia:
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Where did the earliest cities in the world appear? China Yellow River Valley, Shang Dynasty.
The two river basins refer to the Babylonian State of Cuba in today's Iraq.
Where did the earliest plane appear in the world? There are two completely different views about who invented the first airplane in the world. One was invented by Russian Mozhaiski. For example, in the book A Brief History of the Soviet Union, edited by nosov, a historian of the former Soviet Union, it is directly written that Russian military engineer Yafei Mozhaiski (1825- 1890) made the world's first airplane. In the "General History of the Soviet Union" edited by another former Soviet historian, Nechkina also said that the first Russian plane was made by Major General Mozhaiski, who spent a long time carefully designing his own plane and making preparations for flight. He built a monoplane. This kind of aircraft has fuselage, wings, landing gear, power plant, horizontal and vertical control systems, that is, all the main components of modern aircraft are 188 1 year. Moses invented the airplane (airplane) and obtained the patent authorization1882. On July 20th, the first test flight of the world's first airplane was held in Hongcun, near Petersburg. An eyewitness wrote: Mozhaiski's plane glided on the ground on wheels and then flew like a bird. According to the World History edited by the Academy of Sciences of the former Soviet Union, Mozhaiski's trial-produced aircraft used steam engines in 1882- 1885. 1890- 1893, Rebiya was in France, 1892- 1894, and Haimaksim also flew the first plane with a steam engine in the United States.
The second theory was invented by American Wright brothers. In the book Modern History of the New Cambridge World, it is written that two American inventors, namely wilbur wright (1867- 19 12) and Orville Wright (1871-199). Some people in China academic circles think that the Wright brothers invented the world's first airplane because they used steam as power. With the invention of internal combustion engine, people began to pay attention to the trial production of aircraft driven by internal combustion engine. 1896, German designer Gjelfeldt installed an internal combustion engine using liquid fuel on the airship for the first time. The improvement of internal combustion engine and the rapid development of flight theory and flight technology have prepared the necessary conditions for the manufacture of modern aircraft. In this case, at the beginning of the 20th century, the Wright brothers, who were born in a priest's family, observed and studied airplanes since childhood and were brave in flying practice, began to develop airplanes powered by internal combustion engines and operated by people. They overcame many difficulties and built a 12 horsepower internal combustion engine that met the flight requirements. The propeller is driven by a chain, which is a light and compact internal combustion engine using gasoline. This plane is made of wood and cloth. 1903, 17 On February 7th, the Wright brothers took their homemade plane to the sand dunes near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, and began the test flight. The first two take-offs failed. Then Orville took off and flew in the air 12 seconds, with a flying distance of 65438. 1906, Wilbur obtained the American patent. After his death, his brother Orville continued to improve the efficiency of the plane. 1943, Orville presented the flying machine developed by him and his brother to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. Five years later, it became a permanent exhibition to show to the whole world. There is a sign on the plane that says, "The plane was first invented by the Wright brothers."
In which country did the earliest train in the world appear? 1804, the world's first steam locomotive was built by British mining technician Drivesk using Watt's steam engine, with a speed of 5 to 6 kilometers per hour. Because coal or firewood was used as fuel at that time, people called it "train" and it has been used ever since. 1840 On February 22nd, the world's first real train running on the track was designed by Kangwa engineer Charlie Levisik.
Where did the earliest universities in the world appear? The University of Bologna in Bologna, Italy (1088) is the oldest university in the world. In the Middle Ages, it was an important academic center in Europe and attracted many intellectuals from the whole Christian world. Today, it is the second largest university in Italy, with more than 654.38+million students.
Chang 'an Imperial College was founded in the fifth year of China Yuanshuo (BC 124), and it is the oldest regular university in the world. This university takes Dr. Jason Wu as the instructor, and the students enrolled in it are called "children of doctors", who are generally over 18 years old. There are five classics in imperial academy's study. Students can choose to study once, mainly by self-study. Teachers give lectures regularly and take exams once a year. Chang 'an imperial academy was founded by Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty at the active suggestion of Gong and Dong Zhongshu, more than ten centuries earlier than the oldest Egyptian "Azhar University" in the world.
Adopt it
Where did the earliest mobile phone appear in the world? 1one day in April, 973, a man stood on the street of new york, took out a wireless phone with about two bricks and made a phone call, which attracted passers-by to stop and look at him. This man is Martin, the inventor of mobile phone? Cooper. At that time, Cooper was an engineer of the famous Motorola company in the United States.
The first mobile phone in the world was called to an opponent who worked in Bell Laboratories. The other party was also developing a mobile phone at that time, but it has not been successful. Cooper later recalled: "I called him and said,' Joe, I'm talking to you on my cell phone now.' I heard the voice of "gnashing my teeth" on the other end of the phone-although he has always been quite polite. "
By April this year, mobile phones have been born for 30 years. This product of the competition of scientific and technological personnel in those days has blossomed everywhere now, which has brought great convenience to our modern life.
Martin? Cooper is 74 years old. After working in Motorola for 29 years, he founded his own communication technology research company in Silicon Valley. He is currently the chairman and CEO of this company. Martin? Cooper's idea at that time was to let the media know that wireless communication, especially small mobile phones, was very valuable. In addition, he also hopes to arouse the interest of the Federal Communications Commission, and AT & amp； t(AT & amp； T is also a big communication company in the United States) and can support the former.
In fact, going back, we will find that the concept of mobile phone appeared as early as 1940s. At that time, the trial production was started by Bell Laboratories, the largest communication company in the United States. 1946, Bell Laboratories manufactured the first so-called mobile phone. But because of its large size, researchers can only put it on the shelf in the laboratory, and people will gradually forget it.
Until the end of 1960s, in&; Two companies, T and Motorola, became interested in this technology. At that time, at & amp； T Rent a large mobile radiotelephone, which customers can install on the truck. At&T Company. T's vision is to develop a mobile phone with the power of 10 watt in the future, and use the radio device on the truck to communicate. Cooper thinks this kind of mobile phone is too big and heavy to move and carry. Therefore, Motorola filed an application with the Federal Communications Commission, requesting that the power of mobile communication equipment can only be one watt, and the maximum power cannot exceed three watts. In fact, the maximum radio power of most mobile phones today is only 500 MW.
From 1973 to 1985, the first modern mobile phone was born. It puts the power supply and antenna in a box, weighing 3 kilograms, which is very heavy and inconvenient. Users must carry it like a backpack, so it is called a "shoulder phone".
Similar-looking mobile phones were born in 1987. Compared with the "shoulder phone", it is much lighter and easier to carry. Nevertheless, it still weighs about 750 grams, which is like a big brick compared with the mobile phone that weighs only 60 grams today.
Since then, the development of mobile phones has become more and more rapid. 199 1 year, and the weight of the mobile phone is about 250g; 1in the autumn of 996, a mobile phone with a volume of 100 cubic centimeter and a weight of 100 gram appeared. Since then, it has been further miniaturized and lightweight, and 1999 has been lighter than 60 grams. In other words, a mobile phone is not much heavier than an egg.
Modern mobile phones have become more and more like a multi-functional Swiss army knife, except for their smaller mass and volume. In addition to the most basic calling functions, the new mobile phone can also be used to send and receive emails and text messages, surf the Internet, play games, take photos and even watch movies! This was unexpected by the original mobile phone inventor.
In terms of communication technology, modern mobile phones have also made remarkable progress. When Cooper made the world's first mobile phone, he could use any electromagnetic frequency band. The first generation of analog mobile phones is actually to distinguish different mobile phones of different users by different frequencies. The second generation mobile phone -GSM system distinguishes users with a very small time difference.
There is no doubt that Motorola is the originator of modern communication and the maker of major standards, and its research scope has gone far beyond the mobile phone itself.