All scholars come from professional scholars. "Shi" was originally the last aristocratic rank in the feudal system; But in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, "scholar" became a general term for talents. When aristocratic politics did not collapse, all knowledge, rituals, pleasures, etc. They are all in the hands of nobles, and civilians cannot share them. At that time, experts with knowledge and skills were all exclusive to nobles and officials. After the collapse of aristocratic politics, some nobles lost their power and became penniless, unable to support experts for their own use. These experts lost their jobs and went to the folk, so they made a living by selling their knowledge and skills. Anyone who has the right and money can hire them temporarily; At first, they served the aristocrats more, but not just one aristocrat. This has developed some freelance jobs; People who make a living by these freelance jobs have gradually formed a special class, that is, "scholars" of "agriculture, industry and commerce". These "scholars", these experts, finally opened the door to be apprentices. The more apprentices, the greater the momentum and the higher the status. In addition to developing their own majors, they can't help but study the culture and system at that time according to their professional knowledge and skills. There are all kinds of views and opinions. Each "thinks in his own way to change the world" 1. This is how a hundred schools of thought contend.
Confucius was the first person who opened the door to teach and carry forward the non-agricultural, non-industrial, non-commercial and unofficial "scholars" class. Confucius' famous mountain, whose family was originally a noble in the Song Dynasty, was so poor that he went to Lu. He made himself a Confucian scholar; Confucianism is a profession of ritual, and he is just an "old teacher". There is a special place in his teaching, that is, "there is no class in teaching" He recruits students, rich or poor, as long as they pay a considerable tuition fee; All the accepted students will be taught to read precious ancient books such as poems and books, and teach them etiquette and music courses. These used to be enjoyed only by nobles, and Confucius was the first person to popularize knowledge. He took his students around the world and said that the current monarch; This is also not available before. He created the atmosphere of giving lectures and lobbying by himself and was the originator of the "scholar" class. He is a defender of the old culture and system, and he founded the so-called Confucianism with this attitude. The so-called old culture and old system is mainly the culture and system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, which Confucius believes was created by Zhou Wenwang and Duke Zhou. It is his own mission to continue the career of King Wen and Duke Zhou. He himself said, "Keep your word, and do what you want" 3. What is said, believed and good is the culture and system of the Zhou Dynasty. Poetry, books, rites and music are the representatives of Zhou Wenhua, so he takes them as compulsory courses for students. These used to be the heritage of a family, but later each family talked about its new theory and didn't talk about it; The only people who talk about this are the Confucianists who "just talk and don't do it". Therefore, poetry, calligraphy, ceremony and music have all become the exclusive products of Confucianism.
Confucius is a man of great learning, and his lectures are varied. The purpose of his lectures is to cultivate "people" and people who serve the country, not a scholar. He teaches students to read all kinds of books and learn all kinds of homework, and pays more attention to the cultivation of personality. He said that people should have good temperament, be compassionate and be able to push themselves and others. This is the so-called "straightness", "benevolence", "loyalty" and "forgiveness". On the one hand, we should be polite, that is, abide by social norms. Always ask what to do, not whether it is useful; Righteousness is not profit. In this way, talents are worthy of serving the country in politics. Confucius' political theory is "Rightism". He believes that the collapse of the system and the chaos of the class at that time were all due to the misnomer. Without a monarch, a minister, a father, and a son, the world is naturally chaotic. The way to save time is "Jun Jun, Minister, Father, Son". The social order and feudal class were restored when the name was renamed and enfeoffed. He found a theoretical basis for the feudal system. This meaning is also summed up from the Spring and Autumn Annals and various calligraphies of ancient historians. His so-called "narration without action" is actually based on narration, that is, theorizing the old culture and system and maintaining those. His contribution to China culture is here.
After Confucius, Confucianism also produced two masters, Mencius and Xunzi. Meng Zi's name is Ke, Zou Ren; Xunzi's name is Zhao. These two masters represent two schools of Confucianism. They also supported the culture and system of the Zhou Dynasty, but further theorized and idealized it. Mencius said that human nature is good. Everyone has compassion, shame and nausea, helplessness and right and wrong; This is the goodness of benevolence, righteousness, courtesy and wisdom. As long as it can expand, it will become a good person. These beautiful things are always called "unbearable to others". The holy king originated from "unbearable heart" and developed into "unbearable politics" 5. That is "benevolent politics" and "imperial politics". All political and economic systems are designed for the people, and the monarch is also designed for the people-this is no longer the spirit of the feudal system. The opposite of kingship is hegemony. The overlord's various production facilities sometimes seem to serve the people, but in fact they are just means to achieve good reputation, good profits and good honors. Xunzi said that human nature is evil. Sex is the essence of life. There are not only good ends, but also evil ends such as rivalry. But people have considerable intelligence and ability, which can be gradually improved and learned well; After a long time, you can get used to nature, and you can reach the point of being a saint with single-minded efforts. So goodness is man-made. Mencius opposed utilitarianism, but attached importance to it. He discussed the differences between Wang Ba from the perspective of utility. Mencius paid attention to the morality of the holy king, but he paid attention to the authority of the holy king. He said that at the beginning of the people's birth, there was chaos; The holy king established a social country for clarity and controversy. Ceremony is the order and norm of society, and its function is to distinguish clearly; Music is to reconcile emotions, and its function is to fight. In this way, starting from utilitarianism, he found a theoretical basis for all cultures and systems.
Confucian scholars are mostly unemployed refugees in the upper class; The system supported by Confucianism and the morality spoken and done are also spoken and done by the upper class. There are also unemployed refugees at the lower level. They used to be farmers and workers, but most of them became soldiers. A samurai is an expert whose occupation is to help people fight. Mo Zhai is a samurai. The founder of Mohism was born in Lu and later became a doctor in Song Dynasty, but his background may be very humble. The original meaning of "ink" is a slave convict, which is probably a nickname. Zhai is a name. Mohism is a humble school, so it is too lazy to call itself their school by that nickname. Mohism is a group organization, and their leader is called "giant"; Mozi was probably the first "giant". They are not only experts in fighting, but also experts in making war tools.
But Mohism is different from other warriors. They are idealistic. Although they help people fight for a living, they oppose the war of aggression; They only help the small and weak countries that have been invaded to do defense work. Mozi only talks about defensive instruments and methods, not offensive aspects. This is their "no attack" doctrine. They say that the great harm in the world lies in the struggle between people; Everyone in the world should treat others as their own and help each other, which is not only altruistic but also selfish. This is the doctrine of "universal love". Mohism pays attention to utility, and whatever is beneficial to the people of the country is considered valuable. The people of the country benefit from being rich; Everything that can make people rich is useful, while others are useless or harmful. They were the spokesmen of the common people, so they opposed the culture and system of the Zhou Dynasty. They advocate "frugal burial", "short mourning", "frugality" and "unhappiness", which is contrary to Confucianism. They say they are thrifty and hardworking Yu Xia people. They also believe that gods and ghosts can reward good and punish evil; This is also an old belief of the lower classes. Confucianism and Mohism are actually conservative; But one preserves the old of the upper class and the other preserves the old of the lower class.
It is Taoism that is fundamentally opposed to all cultures and systems. Taoism comes from hermits. Confucius met many "hermits" in his life; They really turned their noses up at Confucius. These people are knowledgeable. When they see that the times are too chaotic to save, they become passive and take an indifferent attitude towards the world. They mocked Confucius for "knowing what not to do". 6. It's hard to please; They are smart people themselves, knowing what they can't do and what they are immune to. Later, there was a Yang Zhu who was also a first-class person, but he theorized this attitude and established the theory of "for me". He advocates "protecting one's life and not accumulating things". He wouldn't change a hair on his calf for the whole world. Although the world is big, it is a foreign thing; Although a hair is small, it is a part of itself. The so-called beauty is nature. What Yang Zhu said is just to teach people that life is natural and does not hurt; "Avoiding the world" is the way to "protect your life". However, the world is changing endlessly, and escaping from the world may not necessarily avoid harm. Yang Zhu's teaching is very poor here. It seems that Laozi and Zhuangzi's theory started from here. Yang Zhu is really the pioneer of Taoism.
According to legend, Lao Tzu's surname is Li Minger, a hermit of Chu State. Chu people are a new ethnic group in the south, and they are rarely influenced by Zhou Culture. They often have brand-new ideas. It seems that it is no accident that Confucius met these hermits. They are all in the State of Chu. Zhuangzi, whose real name was Zhou, was born in Song Dynasty, but his thoughts were similar to those of Chu people. Old scholars believe that the changes of things in the universe follow certain public laws, whether it is the natural world or the human world. This is called "Chang". Obeying these public laws, you don't need to avoid harm, so you can avoid harm naturally. Therefore, "He who knows what it is always clear" 8. The biggest law of things is that extremes meet. When dealing with things, it is best to start from the opposite side. "If you want, you must keep it; If you want to be weak, you must be strong; If it is to be abolished, it must be consolidated; If you want to take it away, you must fix it. 9. "If you are straightforward, if you are smart, if you are arguing." 10. In this way, if we retreat, there will be no conflict. Because the extremes of things are opposite, the implementation of various political systems in society often leads to opposite purposes. "Lao Zhang Zi, there are many thieves here. "1 1. Governing the world is all about doing something, but it is thankless. It is better to rule out all systems, conform to nature, govern by doing nothing, and govern by failing to cure. Then I did everything. It was hopeless. Nature is "Tao", which is the general principle that all things in the world are born as human beings. Things are born from Tao, which is the concrete expression of Tao. The principle of a thing is called "virtue", which means "gain". So everything in the universe is natural. This is the fundamental idea of Lao Xue and Zhuang Xue. But Zhuang Xue went further than Lao Xue. They advocate absolute freedom and absolute equality. Everything in the world is changing all the time, and it is natural to be unbalanced. Everything should be natural, and all differences and standards are unnecessary. Social system and political system, it is difficult to teach together, it will only hurt human nature in vain. Therefore, saints are unacceptable; Confucianism and Mohism are shameless 12. According to Zhuang's theory, everything in the world is right, and all opinions in the world are right; I don't care, right or wrong doesn't matter. Even death and life are natural changes, which is gratifying. If you understand this, you can blend in with nature and become the best person who is not complacent. "Zhuang zi and Zhuang zi, the two schools, were always called Taoism in the Han Dynasty.
The distinction between right and wrong in Zhuang studies was influenced by the "debaters" at that time. The "debater" was called a famous scholar in the Han Dynasty, and originated from litigation lawyers. Deng was the leader of debaters and a famous litigator in the late Spring and Autumn Period. Another leader, Liang Xianghui, is also a legal expert. Deng's skill is that he can talk as Kan Kan as he talks about law. "Right is wrong, right is wrong. 13. Language and writing are often ambiguous; He can analyze the meaning of language and use it to make different or even opposite explanations. This develops the arguer's theory. The debaters at that time were Hui Shi and Gong Sunlong. Hui Shi School said that every single thing in the world has many attributes; But these properties are obvious because of comparison, so they are not absolute. Everything has similarities and differences. On the one hand, it can be said that everything is different; On the one hand, everything is different. Similarities and differences are relative, called "contractual differences" 14.
Gong Sunlong, a native of Zhao. His school values fundamentals rather than individuals. He said that concepts exist independently. For example, a hard and white stone looks white to you, but it is not hard; When you touch it, you only feel strong, but you can't see white. So whiteness and compactness are separated. Besides, there are many white things and many hard things in the world, some are white but not hard, and some are hard but not white. It can also be seen that white and firmness are separated, white makes things white, and firmness makes things firm; Although these must be seen through concrete things, they do exist independently, but they are only potential. This is called white 15. This kind of discussion is contrary to common sense, so it was considered as "strange", "plausible" and "useless to argue". 16. But this pure theoretical interest has its value in philosophy. As for the debaters' views on social politics, they are close to Mohism.
Confucianism and Mohism have a * * * attitude, which is to make a statement; They all respect themselves under the guise of ancient sages and sages. Confucius entrusted it to Duke Zhou of Wen, Mozi entrusted it to Yu, Mencius entrusted it to Yao and Shun, and Laozi and Zhuangzi entrusted it to the legends before Yao and Shun. One is bigger than the other, and the other is bigger than the other. Only legalists can become ancient without believing in the past. Legalists came from "Magician" 17. Magicians are political experts. The result of the collapse of aristocratic politics, on the one hand, is the liberation of civilians, on the other hand, is the centralization of monarchy. At this time, the scope of the country is expanding day by day, and the organization of society is becoming more and more complicated. Rule by man and rule by courtesy no longer apply. The magician created a new political method to help the then monarchs organize their national affairs and act as their advisers. This is the rule of law. At that time, the trend of real politics and all aspects was to become old-fashioned-respecting monarchical power, prohibiting private learning and emphasizing the rich. Magicians support this trend and theorize it.
Among them, three schools emphasize strength, skill and law, and everything is done by Han Feizi. He is a North Korean aristocrat and studied Xunzi. He adopted the theories of Xun Xue, Lao Xue and debater, and founded his own theory. He said that strength, skill and law are all "imperial weapons" and are indispensable. The performance of the situation is that rewards and punishments are clear and strict, so that the law and art can be implemented. Because human nature is evil after all. Art is the monarch's skill in controlling his subjects. The comprehensive nuclear name is an example. For example, to teach people to be an official, we must make some achievements according to the position of the official; The monarch can examine it to see if his name really matches. If the liegeman makes a suggestion, the monarch will let him do it and see if he can do what he says. A veritable reward or punishment. Law is the yardstick of rules. If a wise master makes a law, a mediocre master can rule it as long as he abides by it. If the monarch can combine usage, skill and potential, he can rule all the people at once, with static braking and inaction. All philosophers talk about politics, but they are unprofessional and tend to be idealistic. Only the legalist theory comes from real politics and is practical. Most of China's later politics was dominated by the theory of Legalists.
Ancient aristocrats raised experts in rites and music, as well as witchcraft and divination. Rituals and music were originally used for mourning and sacrifice. Experts in funeral, sacrifice, ceremony and music also use witchcraft; These two kinds of people are colleagues who often live together. Wu Zhu is superstitious; Rites and music are superstitious. Rites and music experts later became Confucian scholars; Experts in witchcraft and divination became alchemists. They are very close, and they care about the same things. The so-called yin-yang family in the Han Dynasty came from alchemists. Ancient astrology paid attention to the so-called "the time between heaven and man" and believed that heaven and man influenced each other. At the end of the Warring States period, some people even preached this idea, theorized it and made it a consistent theory. This is the home of Yin and Yang.
At that time, Qi Yan was the boss of the Yin and Yang family. He studied Yin Yang Bao 19 and founded the theory that "five virtues begin with the end". "Five virtues" are the virtues of five elements. The five elements are ancient beliefs. Yan Yan believes that the five elements are five natural forces, the so-called "virtue". Every virtue has its own ups and downs. When you are lucky, the sky and people are dominated by it. When it is exhausted and fails, it will be won and defeated by another virtue, and another virtue will succeed. Wood wins soil, gold wins wood, fire wins gold, water wins fire, and soil wins water, so "the beginning will continue." Events in history are all manifestations of these natural forces. Each dynasty represents a virtue; Dynasties are constantly changing, and no family name can be guaranteed forever. Yin and Yang scholars also talk about benevolence and righteousness, but they are influenced by Confucianism. At that time, Confucianism also began to be influenced by them, talking about Zhouyi and making Yi Chuan. During the Qin and Han dynasties, Confucianism was almost integrated with them; The Confucian classics of scholars in the Western Han Dynasty are mostly based on the Yin-Yang school. Later, although China Ancient Classics swept away some theories of strangeness and strangeness, 2 1. The idea of Yin and Yang family has been deeply rooted in people's hearts and can't be pulled out.
At the end of the Warring States Period, people gradually realized the necessity of unifying thoughts, and Lv Buwei, the prime minister of Qin Dynasty, was the first person to unify thoughts. He taught many disciples to write a book "Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals". The books circulating now are probably compiled by Han people; They may have edited an article from the same school entitled "A Son". So they are not systematic works. Lv Chunqiu is not; This is the first complete book. Lv Buwei compiled this book because he wanted to divide it into several parts, gather all his strength and unify his thoughts. His keynote is Taoism. Qin Shihuang unified the world, taking Lisi as the prime minister and unifying his thoughts. He burned books and banned the collection of "poems and books in 100 languages" worldwide. But the time was not yet ripe, and soon Qin died and Reese failed. Therefore, the study of philosophers in the early Han Dynasty was still very prosperous.
By the time of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Liu An, king of Huainan, imitated Lv Buwei's wisdom and taught his disciples to compile Huainanzi, which was also based on Taoist thought and wanted to unify their thoughts. But it wasn't him who succeeded, it was Dong Zhongshu. Dong Zhongshu suggested to Emperor Wu: "All schools of thought are prohibited except the Six Classics and the theory of Confucius. When heresy stops, order can be unified, standards can be clear, and people can know the way they should go. 23. Emperor Wu adopted his words. From then on, the emperor advocated his Confucianism with fame and fortune, and Confucianism was unified in one statue; During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the atmosphere of extreme freedom of speech and thought was eliminated. At this time, an unprecedented political situation has been opened, social and economic changes have gradually condensed into a new order, and the gradual unification of ideas is also a natural trend. In this new order, farmers are still in the majority, patriarchal society still exists, and some old ethics and systems are still applicable, just popular. On the other hand, to create a new political and social system, we must also refer to the old system. Confucian scholars must be used here. Confucianism is familiar with the previous classics and systems, but it can be idealized and theorized, making those things orderly and impressive. Although other countries also have political and social theories, there is no specific way, that is, there is, and it is incomplete and cannot catch up with Confucianism; In this era of construction, it is naturally impossible to compete with Confucianism. Exclusive respect for Confucianism is also natural.