According to the physical objects unearthed from the ruins of ancient bronze workshops, combined with the shape analysis of bronzes, experts believe that most ancient Chinese bronzes were cast by paradigm.
The technological process of fan casting method is divided into five steps:
The first step is to mold and use clay to shape the basic shape of bronze. Draw the outline of bronze decoration on the prepared clay mold, the concave part is directly carved from the clay mold, and the convex part is separately prepared and pasted on the surface of the clay mold;
The second step is to turn over the fan, that is, the fine mud mixed evenly in advance is tightly pressed on the surface of the clay mold, and the shape and ornamentation of the clay mold are printed on the clay piece after flapping;
The third step is to combine the mud blocks, divide them into several pieces, and then burn them into pottery. This kind of clay is hard and not easy to deform, so it is called pottery. Pottery models are assembled to form the outer cavity of the object, which is called the outer mold. After the outer mold is made, a thin layer of clay mold for turning over the mold is cut off evenly to make the inner surface of the object, which is called the inner mold, and the bronze inscription is engraved on the inner mold. The inner and outer molds are connected into a whole, and the gap cut between the inner and outer molds is where the copper liquid remains, and the distance between them is the thickness of the bronze ware;
The fourth step is pouring, in which the copper liquid is poured into the ceramic mold. After the copper liquid is solidified, the inner and outer ceramic molds are broken and the cast bronze ware is taken out. A set of pottery models can only cast one bronze, and it is impossible to have two identical bronzes;
The fifth step is to polish and renovate. The newly cast bronzes have rough surfaces and unclear decorative patterns, and need to be polished and renovated to become exquisite bronzes. Lost wax method is a precision casting method for bronze and other metal objects. The method is to use beeswax as the model of the casting, and then fill the mud core with other refractory materials and smear it on the outside. After heating and baking, the wax model completely melts and falls off, making the whole casting model an empty shell. Then pour the solution into it, and it will be cast into an object. Objects can be beautifully carved and have a hollow effect. The bronze statue and copper plate unearthed from the tomb of Zeng Houyi in Sui County, Hubei Province are the earliest known lost wax castings in China.
In the late Spring and Autumn Period, China people may have invented the lost wax casting process. The technological process of lost wax method is divided into three steps. Firstly, a wax model is made of easily melted paraffin, and fine mud is poured into the wax model for many times to harden it and form the casting shape. Then, the casting is baked and vitrified. In this process, paraffin melts and flows out, forming a cavity in the casting. Finally, the copper water is poured into the cavity to make the object. Lost wax method is usually used to cast bronzes with very complicated shapes. The bronze plate of Chu State unearthed in Xichuan, Henan Province and the Zunpan of Zeng Hou unearthed in Suizhou, Hubei Province are thought to have been cast by lost wax method. Ding is equivalent to today's pot, used to cook or hold fish. Most of them are Fang Ding with round belly, two ears and three feet, and some have four feet.
Li (phonograph) is used for cooking: generally speaking, it is a waste of mouth and three feet are empty.
Yan is equivalent to today's steamer. The whole vessel is divided into upper and lower parts. The upper part is a still for holding food. The lower part is covered with water. There is a piece of copper called Qing between Zan and Wei. Steam has horizontal holes or straight holes.
The inscription on the ancient bronze ware is "destroyed", which is equivalent to today's big bowl full of rice. Generally, they have a round belly, a small mouth, round feet and two ears. Fu (sound fu) is written as "Hu" or "Hu" in ancient books. For food. Rectangular, extravagant outside the mouth, four feet short, cover.
The hairpin (f incarnation) is rectangular, luxurious outside the mouth and short on four feet. With the lid, the lid and the container are the same size. When it is closed, it becomes a device, and when it is opened, it is the same two devices, which is also called "stand up" or "stand up" in paleontology. Hairpins are called "Hu" or "Hu" in classics.
Polygonum (X incarnation) is used in millet, millet, rice and sorghum. Ellipse, convergent, two ears, full circle, covered.
"Millet" refers to millet, millet, rice and sorghum. Three short feet, round belly, two ears, covered. And spherical Dunn. Beans are used in food, such as meat sauce. There is a plate above, a long handle, a round foot and a lid below. Jue, drink. Equivalent to the wine cup of later generations. There is a wine-filling stream in front of the round belly, a tail behind it, a handle beside it, two columns in the mouth and three-pointed feet under it.
Corner drinking fountain. Shaped like a knight, it has a tail before and after, without two columns. Some have covers.
In the Book of Rites, it is said that "the ancestral temple sacrifices" and "the honorable person raises the flag and the humble person raises the horn". During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, it developed into a beautifully shaped ritual vessel, which was popular before the middle of the Zhou Dynasty and then began to decline.
"Kao Zi Ren" quotes: "One liter is called Jue, two liters is called Fu, three liters is called Fu, four liters is called Jiao, and five liters is called San." Accordingly, the capacity of the horn and the Jue is four to one. The shape of the horn is very similar to that of a columnless knight, except that the flow and tail are pointed. Since the Song Dynasty, Jue-shaped vessels have no flow direction, and those with tails on both wings are horns.
Wine warmer. Shaped like a knight, it has three legs, two columns and a pin.
G not drinking fountain. Long body, mouth, mouth and bottom are trumpet-shaped. Tapirs are shaped like a trumpet-shaped container with a round foot. Tapirs often have a bulge on their lower abdomen, which is decorated with two edges near the round feet. In the early and middle period of Shang dynasty, the vessel was short and had a "horizontal hole" in the circle. From the late Shang Dynasty to the early Western Zhou Dynasty, the shape of the vessel was slender, the lines of the mouth and feet were very beautiful, and the ornamentation was complicated and luxurious.
Drinking fountain. Round belly, small mouth, round feet, shaped like a small bottle, mostly with a lid.
An apparatus for holding or drinking wine. Egg belly or square belly, circle foot or quadruped, with flow and fins, and the cover is made into the shape of animal head or elephant head.
Noble wine container. It is shaped like a tapir, with a thick middle, a small caliber and a square shape.
Yǒu wine container (one of the main wine containers). The general shape is oval mouth, deep abdomen, round foot and covered beam, and the abdomen is round or oval or square, and there are also cylindrical, owl-shaped or tiger-eating shapes.
A container for holding wine, or an ancient utensil for mixing drinks. Generally, it is a deep round mouth with a cover, flowers in front, bamboo in the back, and three or four feet under it. The cover and bamboo are connected by a chain.
Fang Yi's wine vessel. Tall and square, covered, looks like a roof, with buttons. Some Fang Yi also have ribs. Some have a bent abdomen, some are straight, and some have two ears beside their abdomen.
Spoon wine extractor. Usually a short cylinder with a handle on the side. A container for wine or water. There are two forms: square and round. Square shoulders, two ears, covered; Round belly, round feet, two ears. Generally, there is a threading nose at the lower part of one side of both shapes.
A pot for holding wine or water. For example, The Book of Songs said: "Hundred pots of sake", and Mencius said: "Eating the pith of a pot". Pots have various shapes, such as round, square, flat and retort.
The plate holds or receives water. Most of them are round, shallow-bellied, circle-footed or three-legged, and some still flow.
Baa (yí) in Zuo Zhuan has "phoenix eight nests to wash", which means watering, and washing means washing hands and face, indicating that washing hands is an ancient watering tool. Oval, three-legged or four-legged, with flow in front, bamboo behind, and some covered.
Wine containers and water containers are also used to hold sauces. Popular from Shang Dynasty to Warring States Period. The device is similar in shape to the statue, but smaller. Round body, closed mouth, wide shoulder, big belly, full circle, covered, with ears but without ears, square ampoule. The body is often decorated with gluttony, milk nails, clouds and thunder, and the ears are mostly made into animal heads.
A container for water or rice. Small mouth, deep belly, round, with ears, much like reed with ears, but bigger than reed.
The water detector is shaped like a modern basin. There are four purposes: (1) to hold water; (2) Sheng Bing's "Zhou Li": "beginning of spring is a mirror, and eating outside is a shame for the mirror. The same is true of all wine grains with wine pulp. Sacrifice ice guide. " ; (3) take a bath; (4) look at the face, and then it will be replaced by a bronze mirror. Sword making was the most popular in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. At that time, it was also called Zhi, Ding, Pot and Sword. Musical instruments prevailed in the army during the Shang Dynasty. It is disc-shaped and its shape is basically the same as that of cymbals.
Bells and percussion instruments (court music). The surface is large and thin, mostly arc-shaped, with concave roots and slightly inclined edges.
Weave percussion instruments (court music). The body tends to be round, shaped like a chime, but the mouth is flush. Yue was originally a weapon used by princes and nobles to behead people, and it was also a punishment and ritual vessel symbolizing power. Shaped like a hatchet and an axe, it is bigger. As a weapon, it consists of a bronze beryllium head and a long handle. Beryllium has a sharp head, straight blade, flat stem and strong penetration. It probably developed from a flat-stemmed dagger. It appeared in the Spring and Autumn Period and was widely used in the Warring States Period. As for the axe, because its lethality is not as good as that of Mao Ge, its position in actual combat in the Spring and Autumn Period has been greatly reduced. As a symbol of military power, it is mostly used for etiquette and decoration purposes.
The moon is one of the important ritual vessels in Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and it is also a weapon. According to textual research, this kind of utensils evolved from tools such as stone axes. In bronzes, gorgeous and beautiful features are emphasized and become ritual vessels symbolizing power and majesty. Here, two cymbals are selected as works in the late Shang Dynasty, with special emphasis on the majestic and horrible features of the utensils, which completely conforms to the artistic style of the Shang Dynasty. Bronze ritual vessels are used by slave owners and nobles for ritual activities such as sacrifice, feast, courtship, conquest and funeral. They represent the status and power of users and are treasures handed down from generation to generation. There are many kinds of bronze ritual vessels, which are huge in quantity and exquisite in craftsmanship. Their existence is a remarkable feature of ancient bronzes in China. Bronze ritual vessels can be divided into four categories:
According to the social function of bronzes, bronzes are divided into ritual vessels, heavy vessels, burial vessels and daily-use vessels.
Ritual vessels: Slave owners in Shang and Zhou Dynasties worshipped ghosts and gods, offering sacrifices to witchcraft, and combined several large bronzes into a "ritual and music system" in a certain way as a symbol of kingship, fame and national prestige. Bronze ritual vessels are composed of food vessels, wine vessels, water vessels, musical instruments and weapons. , and in their use and arrangement with a strong witchcraft color.
Heavy weapon: a large bronze ware cast in one piece, engraved with inscriptions, called "heavy weapon", which is specially used to record a great event or praise the achievements of the ancestors of the former king. Bronzes with long inscriptions are all heavy weapons.
Ming ware: that is, the instrument of "God". The ancients thought that people died but their souls never died, so they had to live again in another world. Therefore, the slave owners and nobles in Shang and Zhou dynasties were popular with thick burial, and they buried their favorite bronzes, jade articles and pottery with them.
Bronze sacrificial vessels are generally composed of tripod, reed, bean, pot and pot (or cup), and the number of nobles of different grades is specified. However, this ritual vessel is different from the ritual vessels specially made in later generations, and it is still a ritual vessel.