1) The social roots of a hundred schools of thought contend: a. Economy: Niu Geng, the appearance of iron farmers' farm tools, the rise of private fields and the disintegration of well-field system have promoted the development of productive forces and provided material conditions for the prosperity of academic culture. B. politics: a change of direction. The disintegration of slavery and the rise of feudalism have brought about new changes in class relations. Different classes and strata look for spokesmen to put forward their own views and policies on social change and promote cultural prosperity. C. Culture: The situation of "learning in the official" was broken, and private schools rose, which trained a large number of scholars with rich knowledge and social experience. They wrote books, collected disciples and argued fiercely with each other, so there was a situation of "a hundred schools of thought contend".
2) A hundred schools of thought contend: A. Confucius: a thinker, politician and educator in the Spring and Autumn Period, the founder of the Confucian school, representing the declining slave owners, who compiled the Six Classics of the Spring and Autumn Period and incorporated his thoughts into The Analects. Benevolence and courtesy are the core of this thought, that is, "the benevolent loves others" and "self-denial and courtesy". Politics: governing the country by virtue. Philosophy: "Stay away from ghosts and gods". Education: teach all classes well, teach students in accordance with their aptitude, know what you know, review what you don't know, do your best and stick to correct opinions. His thoughts have become the mainstream of China traditional culture. B Laozi: the founder of Taoist school in the Spring and Autumn Period, and the first philosopher to explore the origin of the universe in the history of China philosophy. He believes that "Tao" is the source of all things, insists on dialectical thinking, and politically advocates "governing by doing nothing". His thoughts had a profound influence on China culture, including philosophy, ethics, China people's way of thinking and moral personality. C. Mencius: Warring States, Confucianism, Yasheng, representing emerging landlords. Ideological core: the theory of benevolent government. Advocacy: benevolent government, valuing people (water can carry a boat, but it can also overturn it), being good in nature, valuing righteousness and profit, giving up life for righteousness, and "cultivating noble spirit" Mencius became one of the four books (as well as the University, the Doctrine of the Mean and the Analects of Confucius). D. Xunzi: During the Warring States Period, Confucianism was regarded as a heresy of Confucianism, representing the emerging landlords. It advocates "controlling the destiny and using it", the theory of evil nature and the combination of etiquette and law. E Mozi, the founder of Mohism in the Warring States Period, advocated universal love, mutual non-aggression, Shang Xian, self-improvement, frugality and frugality. His thought represented the interests of small producers at the lower level, and once became a prominent scholar, which declined in the late Warring States period. F. Zhuangzi: During the Warring States Period, Taoism represented declining slave owners. Advocacy: Homogeneity, worry-free, Heaven and Man don't win. Zhuangzi also made great achievements in literature and aesthetics. G. Han Feizi: During the Warring States Period, he was a legalist, representing emerging landlords. Advocate the combination of magic and potential, and establish a centralized country with absolute monarchy. His thoughts became the theoretical basis of China's ruling thoughts in ancient society. H. Sun Bin: During the Warring States Period, he was a strategist representing the emerging landlords. Absorbing the thoughts of legalists and influenced by Sun Tzu's Art of War, he wrote Sun Bin's Art of War, emphasizing the need to understand the laws of war.
3) Significance of a hundred schools of thought contending: The thoughts and theories of a hundred schools of thought contending in the pre-Qin period in the fields of economy, politics, law, philosophy, military affairs, literature, art, natural science, etc. had a great influence on the cultural and academic development of later generations. Among them, Confucianism gave birth to political ideals and moral norms in China's traditional culture; Taoism constitutes the philosophical basis of more than 2000 years of traditional thought; The enterprising spirit in legalist thought has become a theoretical weapon for progressive thinkers and politicians to reform their ambitions. To a great extent, they isomorphically created the basic spirit of China traditional culture.
2. Understanding the historical fact that Confucianism became the orthodox thought in Han Dynasty.
1) In the early 70 years of the Han Dynasty, Huang Lao's learning was adopted: the economy of the early Han Dynasty was broken, and Huang Lao's learning was adopted to govern by doing nothing (essentially "positive inaction"), and the social economy recovered rapidly.
2) The reason why Confucianism became orthodox in the Han Dynasty: In order to meet the needs of economic development, national unity and centralized consolidation, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty "ousted a hundred schools of thought and respected Confucianism alone", which made Confucianism an orthodox thought.
3) The content of Dong Zhongshu's Neo-Confucianism: the unity of spring and autumn, the unity of heaven and man, and the induction of heaven and man. He also put forward five moral standards for treating people and things, namely "the monarch is the minister", "the father is the son", "the husband is the wife", "benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith".
4) Influence: It is a great event in the history of China's political thought to "oust a hundred schools of thought and respect Confucianism alone". Confucianism occupies a dominant position in politics, which is conducive to consolidating centralization and cracking down on local separatist forces. Since then, Confucianism has established its mainstream position in China's traditional culture.
3. List the representative figures of Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties to explain the development of Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties.
1) Background of Neo-Confucianism: During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, social unrest made people more interested in Buddhism and Taoism. Confucianism absorbed the advantages of other sects in the crisis, and the "three religions in one" enriched and updated Confucianism and developed into Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties.
2) Representative figures: A. Northern Song Dynasty called Hao and Cheng Yi: "The Book" is the origin of the world, the universal principle that all things in the world should follow, the Confucian morality and ethics in society, and human nature. The famous saying that "starvation is a trivial matter, and humiliation is a major one". B. Zhu in the Southern Song Dynasty: On Li Qi, On Mind and Nature, and A Collection of Notes on Four Books became the textbooks of the imperial examination, and advocated grasping "reason" through "learning from others". The essence of Zhu Cheng's Neo-Confucianism is objective idealism. C. Lu Jiuyuan in the Southern Song Dynasty: the pioneer of the theory of mind and nature, who put forward that "the mind is reason" and "the universe is my heart, and the unintentional is the universe". The way to reason is to reflect on yourself. D. Wang Yangming in the middle of Ming dynasty: a master of mind. At that time, Zhu Cheng's Neo-Confucianism had become a stepping stone for people to pursue fame, and academic abuse led to moral decay and social unrest. He took pains to advocate the renewal of Neo-Confucianism. The core of thought is "to conscience", which emphasizes self-initiative and inspires people to work hard. The essence of Lu Wang's theory of mind is subjective idealism.
3) Evaluation: Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties is the mainstream of Confucianism. After hundreds of years of development, it has had a far-reaching impact on political life, cultural education and social interaction. Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties maintained autocratic rule with the Three Cardinal Principles and Five Permanent Principles, and suppressed and stifled people's natural desires, which had a negative impact. However, Neo-Confucianism attaches great importance to the power of subjective will, integrity and morality, emphasizes the unity of emotion and reason, self-control and determination, emphasizes human social responsibility and historical mission, and highlights the solemnity of human nature, which has played a positive role in shaping the character of the Chinese nation.
4. List thinkers such as Li Zhi, Huang Zongxi, Gu and Wang Fuzhi to understand the development of Confucianism in Ming and Qing Dynasties.
1) Background: China experienced earth-shaking changes in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The commodity economy is booming, the people's uprising is surging, and new ideas are gestating; At the same time, the full-time corrupt dynasty politics and stereotyped writing seriously hindered the emergence of new ideas. Many scholars try to get rid of the shackles of the Four Books and Five Classics. They despise etiquette, break through the shackles of traditional Confucianism and have a strong demand for pursuing individuality and developing economy. They advocate taking history as a mirror and applying what they have learned.
2) Thinker: A. Li Zhi: a figure in the late Ming Dynasty. Oppose the words of "saints" as the criterion for judging right and wrong, and put forward "childlike innocence", equality between men and women and freedom of personality. His ideas are regarded as heresy. B. Huang Zongxi: ① think that absolute monarchy is a great harm to the world; ② Propose the proposition that "industry and commerce are the foundation"; (3) Propose the proposition that "the world is dominant and the monarch is the guest"; (4) Criticize the feudal thought of "the program of monarch and minister" in old Confucianism. C. Huang Zongxi: ① put forward that "every man is responsible for the rise and fall of the world"; 2 advocate "putting the world into practice"; He wrote "Rizhilu" and "On the Benefits of Counties in the World"; ③ Oppose the vague style of study of Taoism; He also advocates giving full play to Confucius' positive thought of "being knowledgeable in literature and being ashamed of doing". Throughout his life, he never flinched, studied knowledge in a down-to-earth manner, advocated going out of the house and seeking truth in practice. D. Wang Fuzhi: ① The world cannot be privately owned by the emperor, but should be owned by the tiller; (2) he advocated "practical"; He opposed the theory of destiny and knowledge and advocated the supremacy of material. He is an outstanding materialist thinker; (4) He lashed out at Lonely Qin and Rough Song, profoundly exposing the practice that Qin Shihuang and emperors of past dynasties regarded the world as private property. They put forward the theory and proposition of restricting monarchical power, advocated freedom of speech, and established a bottom-up supervision institution to ensure the integrity and correct decision-making of political organs at all levels and the stability of the country and society.
3) Influence: The monarch's critical consciousness was produced in the social environment of the political and economic collapse in Ming and Qing Dynasties, which had a strong impact on the autocratic monarchy. Their thoughts still have an enlightening effect in the following hundreds of years, giving profound enlightenment to future generations.
5. Summarize China's ancient scientific and technological achievements and understand the contribution of China's scientific and technological inventions to the development of world civilization.
1) The reason why China's ancient science, technology and culture were highly developed: Politics: The feudal system was the first country with the most advanced system at that time. The establishment and development of autocratic centralization system is the historical mainstream, and social stability provides good conditions for the continuity and diversity of scientific and technological development. Economy: Economic development provides a material basis for scientific, technological and cultural progress. Education: the rulers attach importance to the development of education and cultivate talents engaged in scientific and cultural undertakings. Diplomacy: The ruler pursues an enlightened foreign policy. Ethnic relations: ethnic unity and ethnic integration have strengthened cultural exchanges and development among ethnic groups and regions.
2) Achievements: A. Four great inventions: ① papermaking: Cai Lun improved papermaking in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Papermaking was introduced to Europe by Arabs, which promoted the development of European culture. (2) Printing: During the Northern Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng invented movable type printing. /kloc-In the middle of 0/3rd century, movable type printing spread to North Korea and later to Europe from the Western Regions, which promoted the Renaissance and religious reform, and promoted people's ideological liberation and social progress. (3) Gunpowder: In the Tang Dynasty, people accidentally invented gunpowder when refining Dan medicine; /kloc-At the beginning of the 4th century, gunpowder was introduced to Europe by Arabs. The introduction of gunpowder into Europe promoted the development of gunpowder weapons in Europe, making feudal castles vulnerable and the knight class declining day by day; The progress of firearms has also promoted the development of mining and metal manufacturing in Europe. ④ Compass: During the Warring States Period, people invented Sina by using the characteristics of magnetic conductivity, which was used for navigation in the Northern Song Dynasty. The compass was introduced to western Europe in the 0/3rd century. The use of compass promoted ocean navigation and ushered in the era of great geographical discovery. Worldwide, the compass provided technical support for Columbus's discovery of America and Magellan's voyage around the world. B. Mathematics: ① Spring and Autumn Period: Formula, calculation and calculation of 99 multiplication. ② pi: the pi calculated by Zu Chongzhi in the Northern and Southern Dynasties was between 3.1415926 ~ 3.1415927, which was one thousand years ahead of the world. ③ Nine Chapters of Arithmetic in the Eastern Han Dynasty marked the formation of the ancient mathematical system. C. Astronomy: ① The Astrology in the Warring States Period is the earliest astronomical monograph in China, and the Stone Star Table in the book records the positions of more than 120 stars, which is the earliest catalog in the world. (2) Zhang Heng invented the water image instrument in the Eastern Han Dynasty, and his view that the earth is round was earlier than that in Western Europe 1000; The seismograph was invented to locate the earthquake. (3) In the Tang Dynasty, a group of eminent monks created the ecliptic patrol instrument to measure the meridian length. (4) In the Yuan Dynasty, Guo Shoujing made an armillary sphere and compiled it into the Service Calendar. D. agriculture: ① artificial hybridization grafting technology. ② The Book of Bi Sheng in the Western Han Dynasty: Mixed Selection Method. ③ The Book of Qi Yao Min by Jia Sixie in the Northern Wei Dynasty: the first complete agricultural book in China. ④ In the Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi compiled the Encyclopedia of Agricultural Administration, absorbed the latest achievements of contemporary practice and conducted agricultural science and technology experiments. E. Medicine: ① Huangdi Neijing was written in the Warring States Period and in the Western Han Dynasty. It is an early existing medical work in China, which laid the theoretical foundation of traditional Chinese medicine. ② Zhang Zhongjing's Treatise on Febrile Diseases in the Eastern Han Dynasty systematically discussed four methods of diagnosis and treatment, which was called "medical sage" by the later Buddha. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Hua Tuo was good at surgery, invented the anesthetic "Mafeisan" and invented the Wuqinxi. ④ Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica in Ming Dynasty comprehensively and systematically summarized China's pharmaceutical achievements before16th century.
6. Summarize the origin and evolution of China's writing and painting, and understand the basic characteristics and development of China's painting and calligraphy.
1) Chinese characters: Some depicting symbols appeared on Neolithic pottery and gradually evolved into Chinese characters. Oracle Bone Inscriptions is the earliest mature Chinese character in Shang Dynasty. The words on the bronzes of Shang and Zhou Dynasties are called "inscriptions on bronze". After the reunification of the Qin Dynasty, the "script with the same character" was implemented to unify the national characters, and later the official script was popularized.
2) The reasons why Chinese characters developed into calligraphy in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties are: a large number of single men with rich glyphs prepared materials for Huade's creation; With the formation of knowledge groups, calligraphy has become an ideal form for the world to express its pursuit of artistic conception, charm and character; The progress of stationery such as pen, ink and paper provides conditions for the innovation of calligraphy skills.
3) Calligrapher: The Preface to Lanting written by Wang Xizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty is known as "the best running script in the world". During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, cursive scripts of Zhang Xu and Huai Su appeared, as well as regular scripts of Ou Yangxun, Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan. There were four great calligraphers in Song Dynasty: Su Huang and Camouflage. Calligraphy in Ming Dynasty emphasized individualized creation. In the Qing dynasty, it was said that it was incomplete.
4) Seal cutting: called sister art with calligraphy. Qin and Han dynasties are a landmark period, and seal script in China and India is based on seal script, which combines the style of official script. After the mid-Ming Dynasty, seal cutting, together with calligraphy and painting, became an important part of ancient art in China.
5) Painting: During the Warring States Period, works with brush strokes on silk appeared. Han dynasty: painting silk. Wei and Jin Dynasties: Gu Kaizhi wrote Metaphysical God, and his works include A History of Women. Tang: Wu Daozi, "Wu Cheng Feng", such as. Song: Zhang Zeduan's Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival. Basic characteristics: On the one hand, realistic palace and folk paintings prevail, on the other hand, non-utilitarian and freehand literati paintings appear, which integrate poetry, calligraphy and painting. Chinese painting does not seek form, but pays attention to personal subjective temperament. Its flexible and free expression has exerted a subtle influence on the self-confidence, self-esteem, independence and fear of violence of the enlightenment nation.
7. Understand the literary achievements such as the Book of Songs, Chu Ci, Han Fu, Tang Poetry, Song Ci, Yuan Qu, Ming and Qing novels, and understand the literary characteristics of different periods in ancient China.
1) The Book of Songs: the earliest collection of poems in China, which is divided into three parts: style, elegance and ode. Wind is a folk song of Zhou Dynasty's vassal states, collectively referred to as "national wind", which reflects the life of ordinary people. Elegance is the lyrics of court music in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Ode is the lyrics of dance music for offering sacrifices to the ancestral temple.
2) Songs of Chu: Qu Yuan wrote in Chu language and adopted free and flexible sentence patterns. His works include Li Sao, which expresses his concern for the country and the people.
3) Han Fu: Rhyme prose that absorbs the expression techniques of The Book of Songs and The Songs of Chu in the pre-Qin period, and is good at laying out rhetoric and gorgeous literary talent. Senator Sima Xiangru.
4) Tang poetry: the representative figure is the poet Li Bai, which embodies the spirit of the times in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. The poet Du Fu's concern for the country and the people reflects the sufferings brought to the people by the An Shi Rebellion. In his fierce criticism of the dark reality, Bai Juyi placed his political ambition and deep sympathy for the sufferings of the people.
5) Song Ci: also known as "long and short sentences", can express emotions flexibly and freely, and can be sung with music. Some are written for entertainment, and some are used to express the idea of saving the nation from extinction. The representative figure is "Su Xin".
6) Legends of the Tang Dynasty: novels and romances, such as Liu Yichuan, Conan Taishou Biography and Yingying Biography.
7) Song Storybook: The basic book used by storytellers, including Buddhist scriptures, history, love, etc., such as Rolling Jade Guanyin.
8) Novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties: With the development of commodity economy and the rise of the civil class, chapter-back novels became the mainstream of Ming and Qing literature. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Water Margin, The Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and Four Great Classical Novels appeared. Three words and two beats, the poet entered the literary world with the object of praise for the first time. The works that criticize reality include Cao Xueqin's Dream of Red Mansions, Pu Songling's Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio and Wu's Scholars.
8. Understand the emergence and development of Peking Opera and other operas, and explain their artistic achievements.
1) Germination: Nuo Opera. The ancients used this witchcraft ceremony to silence the chivalrous and drive out the demons. In the pre-Qin period, Nuo became an important part of the national sacrifice and etiquette system. Singing and dancing during Nuo ceremonies has become one of the oldest sources of drama in China.
2) Growth: Southern Opera in the Song Dynasty was popular in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, Quanzhou, Fujian and Fuzhou, and was created by folk artists or lower-class intellectuals to expose social darkness and express the wishes of working people.
3) Maturity: Yuan Zaju combines various forms of performance, such as poetry, singing, dialogue, music and dance. The story is complete and the roles are coordinated, which indicates the maturity of China ancient opera. The popularity of Yuan Zaju not only benefited from the prosperity of urban economy and the growth of the citizen class, but also related to the low status of intellectuals. Intellectuals at the bottom displayed their talents in drama creation, which contributed to the prosperity of Yuan Zaju. The four great composers of Yuan Qu are Guan Hanqing (Dou E), Bai Pu, Ma Zhiyuan and Zheng Guangzu. Wang Shifu's The West Chamber is his masterpiece.
4) The symbol of the formation of Peking Opera: In the fifty-fifth year of Qianlong, that is, the eightieth birthday, the Huizhou class went to Beijing, and the Sanqing class was led by Gao Langting. After entering Beijing, he learned from other people's strengths and integrated into Beijing vocabulary, winning the audience's welcome.
5) Prosperity: During the Guangxu period of the Qing Dynasty, Peking Opera finally ushered in its first prosperous period through the unremitting efforts of several generations of artists, learning from others' strengths, absorbing others' strengths, absorbing others' strengths, and bringing forth the new.
9. Understand the ancient Greek school of wise men and Socrates' exposition of human value, and understand the connotation of humanistic spirit.
1) Background: From the 6th century BC to the middle of the 5th century BC, the main interest of ancient Greek natural philosophers was to study and discuss various phenomena in nature, while ignoring human activities and creativity. After the middle of the 5th century BC, with the development of city-state democracy, people's central position in society became increasingly prominent.
2) School of the Wise: A. Viewpoint: Understand the society, advocate skepticism, oppose superstition, and emphasize the value and decisive role of people. Value standards such as justice, virtue and truth are related to people's needs and interests and are formulated by people. Everyone has their own feelings. Good or bad depends on personal standards. There are no objective standards and eternal truths in the world. B. occupation: teacher, whose task is to cultivate good citizens who take into account both public and private interests. C. On behalf of: protagoras. D famous saying: Man is the measure of all things, the measure of all things' existence and the measure of all things' non-existence. E. Influence: It emphasizes the significance of man as the subject of understanding objective things, denies the role of supernatural forces such as God or fate in social life, establishes human dignity, and plays a positive role in the ideological enlightenment and liberation of the Athenians.
3) Socrates: The famous saying "Know yourself". He emphasized the role of knowledge and thought that people must have knowledge to achieve good; Ignorance is the main source of all evil. Socrates initiated a new direction of Greek philosophy, making philosophy truly a study of "man". His rational spirit of attaching importance to knowledge and exploring freely had a far-reaching influence on later western philosophy. But Socrates supported oligarchy and opposed radical democracy politically, so he was sentenced to death.
4) Plato: Socrates' student, concerned about human society, wrote The Republic.
5) Aristotle: Plato's student, the famous saying is: "I love my teacher, especially the truth." The greatest contribution of philosophy is the establishment of logic, which makes philosophy an independent discipline. He is a knowledgeable and encyclopedic scholar, who combines the knowledge of ancient Greek science and culture.
10, understand the main works of Boccaccio and others and the main ideas of Martin Luther and others, and understand the meaning of humanism during the Renaissance and the Reformation.
Renaissance:14-17th century
1) background: since the14th century, Italian industrial and commercial cities have sprung up and capitalism has sprouted; The bourgeoisie pursues wealth and enjoyment of life, but it has no mature ideological system and can only express its anti-feudal thoughts with the help of ancient Greek and Roman culture.
2) Center: Italy
3) Core idea: Humanism, that is, advocating human nature and opposing divinity, advocates that the purpose of life is to pursue realistic happiness, rather than the desire to destroy people as emphasized by the church, in order to achieve the purpose of ascending to heaven after death; He advocates the liberation of personality and opposes the foolish ideas of blind obedience and belief. This adapted to the needs of the development of capitalism and cleared the ideological obstacles for the development of modern natural science and various academics.
4) Representative figures: A. Boccaccio: decameron, a masterpiece, runs through humanism, affirms the value and dignity of human beings against the Catholic Church, advocates that all people are created equal and opposes feudalism. B Dante: The masterpiece The Divine Comedy is known as "the last poet in the Middle Ages and the first poet in the new era." C. Petrarch: The masterpiece songji is called "the father of humanism". The above three people are called the first three masters of the Renaissance. Da Vinci: The Mona Lisa and the Last Supper are masterpieces. He is good at applying anatomy, perspective and light and shade transfer to painting. Michelangelo: David and Moses. Raphael: the masterpiece of the Sistine Chapel. His Madonna is gentle and beautiful, like an ordinary mother. The above three people are called the three great masters after the Renaissance. G Shakespeare: an Englishman, whose masterpiece is Hamlet, represents the highest achievement of the European Renaissance and has a far-reaching influence on the development of European realistic literature.
5) Significance: A. The Renaissance broke through the shackles of Christian theology, awakened people's self-awareness, publicized the spirit of striving to create secular happiness, and laid the foundation for the emergence of the Enlightenment. B changed people's ideas, cultures and life concepts, and laid the foundation for the establishment of modern capitalist civilization in Europe and even the world. C. Many exquisite works of art during the Renaissance have become dazzling chapters in the history of human art and shine forever. D. Humanism advocates scientific experiments and pays attention to practice, which gives birth to modern natural science.
② Reformation:16th century
1) background: a. in medieval western Europe, the Catholic church was the most powerful feudal main group and a powerful tool for the feudal landlord class to rule spiritually. 15 and 16 centuries, the Catholic church became an obstacle to the development of capitalism in western Europe. B. The corruption and exploitation of the Catholic Church have aroused strong dissatisfaction from all walks of life. C during the renaissance, advocating individual freedom, equality and desire, advocating the spirit of competition and enterprising and the concept of scientific knowledge provided a strong basis for the religious reform.
2) Martin Luther's Religious Reform: Reason: In the 6th century, the Catholic Church was still very powerful in Europe, especially in divided Germany, and was called "the Pope's Cow". Fuse: 15 17, the Pope peddles exchange certificates. Martin Luther published "On the Efficacy of the Atonement Voucher" (that is, the "Ninth Five-Year Plan"), arguing that the efficacy of the Atonement Voucher is minimal. Religion claims: "Justification by faith", as long as you believe in God, your soul can be saved, not atoned for by good deeds; Simplify religious ceremonies; The bible is higher than the pope and the church; The monarch can punish priests and popes. Essence: Oppose the Catholic Church, oppose feudalism and represent the interests of the bourgeoisie. Influence: Under the guidance of Martin Luther, Germany began the religious reform movement, which was a social and ideological reform movement against the Catholic Church. Protestantism, founded after the reform, entered the stage of European history and formed a new situation of tripartite confrontation with the original Catholicism and Orthodox Church.
3) Calvin's religious reform: 1536, published a book "Principles of Christianity", arguing that people can only be saved by relying on faith, thus opposing the hierarchy of Catholicism and denying the power of the Pope to rule the people. The core of Calvin's religious view is to draw conclusions first. His theory defends the bourgeoisie's prosperity and is "the second great figure of European religious reform". Calvinism, which he founded in Geneva, has an elected faculty and a system of integration of politics and religion.
4) Influence: The Reformation was a social movement against the Catholic Church in western European countries in the16th century, and it was also a political movement in the guise of the Reformation. Religious reform spread and developed humanism, liberated western Europeans from the long-term Christian theocracy, and made ideological preparations for the arrival of the Enlightenment. It weakened the control of the church on people's thoughts and social economy, and promoted the development of capitalism.
1 1. Briefly describe the views of enlightenment thinkers such as Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau and Kant, and summarize the development of humanism in the Enlightenment.
1) Background: Great changes have taken place in Europe since the 7th century. Britain completed the bourgeois revolution and established a constitutional monarchy. B. Natural science has made many achievements, the preaching of the church has collapsed, and the authority of the church has begun to be challenged. C. With the growth of capitalist economy, the emerging bourgeoisie began to rise, and France became the center of the Enlightenment.
2) Meaning: Use "rationality" to enlighten people's anti-feudal consciousness and bring light and hope to people in the dark. Enlightenment thinkers advocated science, freedom and equality. Enlightenment scholars criticized feudal autocracy and its religious ideology, which prepared ideological conditions for bourgeois revolution.
3) Representative: A. Montesquieu: French. Oppose autocratic monarchy and put forward the theory of separation of powers (state power is divided into legislative power, administrative power and judicial power, which are controlled by parliament, monarch and court respectively, and are independent, mutually restrictive and balanced). His theory laid the theoretical foundation of the bourgeoisie on the state and law. His masterpiece is On the Spirit of Law. Voltaire: the leader of the French Enlightenment. He opposed the Catholic church; Oppose absolute monarchy, advocate constitutional monarchy, advocate equality, freedom of belief and democratic politics. His masterpieces are Philosophical Exchange and Louis XIV. C. Rousseau: French. He put forward "natural human rights" and "people's sovereignty", and his masterpiece "On Social Contract". He believes that the root of human inequality is private ownership of property. D. Encyclopedia school: represented by the Frenchman Diderot, the enlightenment thought is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people and the enlightenment movement is developed. E. Kant: German. He wrote Three Criticism, namely, Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason and Critique of Judgment, and finally established the dominant position of human beings. He put forward the proposition that man is not a tool.
4) Influence: Enlightenment thinkers attacked the Catholic Church and autocratic system, broke people's superstitions about the Catholic Church and feudal rule, and made the idea of freedom and equality deeply rooted in people's hearts. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, the feudal autocratic rule in France was shaken, and finally the Great Revolution broke out. The North American colonies and Latin American people regarded the Enlightenment as a weapon to win national liberation. Enlightenment is a great ideological emancipation movement, which enriches and develops the connotation of humanistic spirit, makes theoretical preparations for bourgeois revolution and creates valuable spiritual wealth for human society.
12. Understand the main contents of classical mechanics and its historical position in the development of modern natural science theory.
1) Background: A. Scientists represented by Galileo laid the theoretical foundation of classical mechanics. B.65438+The rapid development of British capitalist economy in the 7th century. C. the role of renaissance and religious reform in emancipating people's minds.
2) Content: the law of universal gravitation and the three laws of Newtonian mechanics (inertia, acceleration, acting force and reaction force). These theories sum up the motion of celestial bodies and the motion of objects on the earth in the same theory, and become a master of classical mechanics.
3) Features: Emphasis on experiment and mathematicization.
4) Influence: The establishment of Newtonian mechanics marks the beginning of the era of human science. Newtonian mechanics is the basis of physics and astronomy, as well as modern engineering mechanics and related engineering technology theories. Newtonian mechanics and heat triggered the first technological revolution from the British industrial revolution, which brought human society into age of steam. Newton accurately described the natural laws of the universe by mathematical methods, which laid a scientific foundation for the French Enlightenment and materialist philosophy.
13. Briefly describe the main viewpoints of evolution, and summarize the root causes of the differences between science and religion on the issue of human origin.
1) background:15-18th century, after the baptism of the Renaissance, the religious reform and the Enlightenment, a new atmosphere of facing the real world, attaching importance to practice, advocating and pursuing rationality emerged. 17-18th century, bourgeois revolution and industrial revolution occurred one after another, science and technology made great progress, human cause was continuously broadened, and ideology and culture were more open. As early as19th century, German Schleiden and Wang Shi put forward and established cell and cell theory.
2) Evolution: Darwin published "The Origin of Species" in 1859, and put forward the evolutionary thought of natural selection and survival of the fittest. He believes that under natural conditions, organisms will constantly mutate due to the influence of the surrounding environment, which is conducive to the survival of individuals who adapt to the natural environment, and the unfavorable individuals will be eliminated naturally. If the natural conditions are relatively stable, favorable variation will accumulate and be passed down from generation to generation, farther and farther away from the original species, thus forming new species. 1874, Darwin published The Origin of Man, and put forward the viewpoint that man evolved from apes.