Xia, Shang and Zhou laid the rudiment of science and technology in China. At this time, China entered the Bronze Age, and bronzes were cast and smelted.
Selected materials on the history of science and technology in China [1]
The technology is first class. At this time, primitive porcelain also appeared.
Especially in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, China's ancient scientific and technological system was basically laid in this period. At this time, iron was widely used in China, and steelmaking technology and cast iron softening technology appeared at the same time. [2] At this time, many large-scale water conservancy projects have been completed, including Dujiangyan and Zheng Guoqu. Mathematically, the decimal system is established; One of the earliest catalogues appeared in the world; The length of the tropic year is measured accurately. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine was initially established.
Qin and Han dynasties
In the Qin and Han Dynasties, with the consolidation of the feudal system, all kinds of ancient science and technology in China have matured. Nine chapters of arithmetic confirmed ancient China.
China Journal of Science and Technology History
The emergence of mathematical system. Papermaking has been invented and greatly improved. The construction of the Great Wall reflected the development of architectural technology in China at that time. Zhang Heng invented the seismograph, which is the earliest seismograph in the world. [2]
In agriculture, a rotation system has been established. Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica and Treatise on Febrile Diseases had a great influence on the development of Chinese medicine in later generations. Nine Chapters of Arithmetic defines the ancient mathematical system of China. During this period, papermaking was invented and greatly improved. Shipbuilding technology is very mature. The construction of the Great Wall reflects the development of architectural technology.
Jin southern and northern dynasties
Famous scientists appeared in this period. Liu Hui, Zu Chongzhi and Zhang Zixin have made great contributions to mathematics and astronomy.
A concise tutorial on the history of China's scientific and technological development [3]
Great contribution. Pei Xiu's Six-body Cartography initiated the basic theory of ancient cartography in China. Jia Sixie's "Qi Yao Min Shu" marks the maturity of agriculture. Wang Shuhe's Pulse Classic, Huangfu Mi's Acupuncture Classic A and B, and Tao Hongjing's Shennong Herbal Classic have enriched the system of traditional Chinese medicine. Ge Hong's research on alchemy contributed to primitive chemistry, represented by Ma Jun's achievements in mechanical manufacturing.
Song dynasty
China's ancient science and technology developed greatly in the Song Dynasty, among which Shen Kuo was an outstanding representative. At this time, China's four great inventions came out one after another and made great contributions to world civilization.
In the Song Dynasty, the development of ancient science and technology in China reached its peak. Just like the prosperity of administration and art, the Southern Song Dynasty was also an exciting period of technological innovation. Shen Kuo (103 1- 1095), whose real name is Meng Xi, was born in Qiantang, Hangzhou (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang).
China science and technology development history [4]
Scientists and reformers in the Northern Song Dynasty. In his later years, he wrote a notebook masterpiece "Talking about Meng Xi" in Meng Xi Park in Zhenjiang. He is a very knowledgeable and outstanding scientist and one of the most outstanding scientists in the history of China. He is proficient in astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, meteorology, geography, agriculture and medicine. He is also an outstanding engineer and diplomat. He is a bit like Leonardo da Vinci in many ways. Besides philosophy, he is also interested in many practical subjects, and he is very professional. This is in line with the scholar gentleman model advocated by Confucianism. However, Shen Kuo and his contemporaries went further than the sage said, investigated and studied things, and raised it to the category of scientific inquiry. Shen Kuo's diary, for example, records the marine fossils he observed in rock formations far above the present sea level. Like leonardo da vinci in the Italian Renaissance, but three centuries earlier than the latter, he drew the correct inference and wrote the first statement about the geomorphology theory of ground uplift. [5]
the Yuan Dynasty
Great achievements were made in science and technology in Yuan Dynasty, among which astronomy, mathematics and even medicine were all advanced in the world at that time. At that time, leading Arab and Persian science and technology were introduced into China. Before Yuan Shizu Kublai Khan ascended the throne, he recruited "returning scholars". In 127 1 year, they translated and brought Ptolemy's Anthology and Ibn Yunus's Hakim Catalogue (also translated), the rooftop of Whist was formally established, and in 13 12 year, the Tian Jian of Whist was established. Later, a large number of astronomers, represented by Zamarudin (also translated as Zamarudin and Zamarudin), were appointed to manage this kind of work.
China people began to use Arabic numerals at this time.
1280, when the mathematicians and astronomers Wang Xun and Guo Shoujing of Yuan Dynasty worked out the calendar, they not only listed the cubic interpolation formula ("calling difference method"), but also made careful calculations with the pile-based method, calling difference method, Pythagorean method and vector division method, among which the arc triangle method invented by Muslims was applied to the circle division method, and the "vector division method" was obtained.
It is generally believed that some of Euclid's Elements of Geometry was translated by Xu Guangqi in Ming Dynasty with the help of Italian Matteo Ricci and introduced to China (the first six volumes of Elements of Geometry were translated together), but some scholars (Fang Hao's History of Sino-Western Communication) believe that this book was brought to China by Muslims who came to China before Yuan Dynasty.
/kloc-After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty in the middle and late 4th century, due to the expansion of the imperial examination stereotyped writing model and the prevalence of abacus calculation, the ancient mathematics based on calculation in China declined.
In the Yuan Dynasty, Chinese medicine developed greatly, and four schools of thought appeared in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties. On the basis of inheriting the tradition, medicine and pharmacy are eclectic and exchange needed goods, which greatly enriches the content of medical knowledge. Hui Hui Fang (hereinafter referred to as Fang) is a large-scale comprehensive medical ancient book of Hui Hui in China (the author is unknown). The first 36 volumes and some remaining books can be found in Beijing Library. Most of this book is written in Chinese.
Including internal medicine, surgery, gynecology, pediatrics, orthopedics and dermatology, it is rich in content and has the characteristics of combining Chinese and western medicine; Scholars who study the history of Chinese medicine infer from the rest that there are about 6,000 to 7,000 prescriptions in this prescription, and their value is equivalent to China's ancient medical book "Secrets from Outside Taiwan".
Today's Beijing is based on the Yuan Dynasty. As far as architectural achievements are concerned, Yuan Dadu is a world-renowned architectural art treasure. The architect responsible for designing and participating in the construction of the Yuan Dynasty Capital is also a Muslim architect in China. It is hard to imagine that this architect can make use of the traditional architectural features of China and combine the advanced architectural styles of the world to design a grand, well-planned Yuandu, which is in harmony with nature. He participated in the design of Yuan Dadu.
Generally speaking, the Yuan Dynasty is the crystallization of the wisdom and sweat of the Chinese nation. Yuan Dadu was founded in 1267 and completed in 18 (the former Jinzhongdu City was located in the east of Lianhuachi in the southwest of Beijing, and Yuan Dadu New City was built in the northeast of Zhongdu Old City).
129 1 year, Guo Shoujing directed the construction of the canal from Yuan Dadu to Tongzhou. From Tongzhou to Yuandadu, he designed seven sluices, each about half a kilometer apart, and also designed Doumen. Guo Shoujing adjusts the water level of each section of the canal through the opening and closing of sluice gates and Doumen, and guides ships to pass smoothly. After the completion of the project, Yuan Shizu personally put this paragraph 164.
During the period of Yuan Shizu, he began to attach importance to agriculture, and formulated policies conducive to agricultural development, which greatly improved the level of agriculture. Wang Zhen's Agricultural Book, with 37 volumes (currently 36 volumes), is a masterpiece that comprehensively and systematically discusses ancient agricultural production in China. The book is about 1.3 million words, with more than 300 pictures. The full text is divided into three parts: Nong Sang Tong Ji, Baigupu and Farm Tools Atlas. "Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, sideline, fishing and water conservancy" includes a comprehensive discussion, and puts forward the important farming thought of "being timely, in place and being immune to the disease". In addition, the author's description of plant characters is not found in previous books, among which the agricultural instrument atlas is the key part of the agricultural book, which introduces in detail 257 kinds of agricultural machinery in 20 categories, such as field system, granary, boat and car, irrigation, sericulture, fiber weaving and hemp, and is accompanied by 306 drawings, which is more valuable than before.
In letterpress printing, Wang Zhen designed wooden movable type and rotary typesetting frame, and printed Jingde County Records with wooden movable type in 1298. His "Making Movable Type Printing Calligraphy" (attached to the end of agricultural books) is the earliest scientific and technological document that systematically introduces movable type typesetting and printing.
Ming dynasty
The scientific and technological achievements of the Ming Dynasty are like stars, all walks of life have made extraordinary achievements, and many famous masterpieces have emerged.
1, scientific works
Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica (1578); Zhu Zaiyu's New Theory of Law (1584); Pan Jixun's Overview of River Defense (1590); Cheng Dawei's unified algorithm (1592); Tu Benjun's misunderstanding in Fujian and China (1596); Xu Guangqi's encyclopedia of agricultural management (1633); Song Yingxing Tiangong Kaiwu (1637); Xu Xiake's Travels of Xu Xiake (1640); Wu Youxing's Theory of Plague (1642).
In just over 60 years, so many excellent scientific monographs have appeared, which is unprecedented in the history of China. As pointed out by the researchers, the number of western books shipped to China at that time was staggering, including almost all the knowledge of theology, philosophy, science, literature and art after the Renaissance. At this time, Copernicus's "Heliocentrism" and the Western "Earth View" were also related to Catholic theology.
2. Translate the work
In Xu Guangqi, "If you want to win, you must be able to pass; Before the meeting, we must translate the ideological principles of "[7] and" Those who seek Tao and art should be open-minded, open-minded, and build a career in 3,000 years, and we can learn from it in my year "[8]. Under the guidance of this goal and with the support of the Ming government, China people consciously and purposefully translated western books on mathematical engineering. Among them, there are (including translators or authors) in the translation bibliography that can be known:
Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi, 65,438+0,607, Xiong Sanba, 65,438+0,665,438+0,654,38+0, Taixi Water Law, Xiong Sanba and Xu Guangqi, 65,438+0,665,438+02.
Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi, Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao 16 13, Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao 16 13, Matteo Ricci and Gankuntieyi, Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao16/kloc-4. 16 15 Julio Aleni, 1623, 1626 Fu and Li Zhizao, 1628 Fu and Li Zhizao are talking respectively.
, 1636, the whole world, the Soviet Union, 1637, Li Zhi, 1637, giacomo Rowe, 1637, Giulio Aleni, 1637, Kunyu Gezhi (《
Various ingenious mechanical devices of Simon steffen, a Dutch mathematician and military engineer, the original works of Italian engineering expert Rameri (Latin version), the Cologne version of The Whole Meaning of Measurement, giacomo's Theory of Celestial Motion, Copernicus's Summary of Copernican Astronomy, Kepler's Proportional Solution, and the voyage in the Mediterranean.
Giacomo Rowe's relationship between the earth's surface environment and its diameter, cosmological instruments, Jacques Besson, Pierre+leconte invented geometric astronomical radiometer for land and sea, manufacture and use, magnetic measurement, Guillaume Denotene's magical vomiting drug.
Sarah Angelo is the author of Salinity of Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, etc. , and the theory of the fluctuation effect of tidal current, Claude Lei Ju.
At that time, there were other translations and creations, such as Illustration of Distant Western Wonders (from, Deng, et al., 1627), Outline of Personal Description of Taixi (1635), Illustration of Personal Description (1635) and Law of the West (. Chongzhen almanac, physical knowledge, degrees, Taixi law sequence, Yun Xuan diagram, geometric theory, geometric usage, Taixi arithmetic, six ways of western Confucianism, academic debate, sun, moon and stars (Lu Zhong in the apocalypse period)
3. Geometric elements
Xu Guangqi thought, "If you want to be outstanding, you must master it first". It can be seen that in his mind, "mastering" Chinese and western is the first step, and "surpassing" western learning is the goal. In Xu Guangqi's scientific thought, translation is the basis and the only way to learn advanced western science and technology. At that time, Xu Guangqi attached great importance to communication work such as translation, and paid attention to cultivating his own western talents through translation. Therefore, we should strive to make progress and be more successful than today. [9] In this regard, Ji Zhigang commented: Today, when the Chinese nation once again stands among the nations of the world, and when we realize that "innovation is the soul of national progress" and "innovation is also an inexhaustible motive force for the country's prosperity", Xu Guangqi's scientific thought of "interacting with others and surpassing others" is even more brilliant. [5438+00. Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci translated the first six volumes of Elements of Geometry. As a Christian who converted to Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi didn't choose religious classics, but first translated Geometry, a classic work of western ancient mathematics. He said: "The Elements of Geometry is a classic work about degrees, so poor Fiona Fang's directness is used as a measure ... After graduation, he recovered from the details, from doubt to trust, not necessary.
4. Chongzhen almanac
In the second year of Chongzhen, that is, 2 1,1June 629, Qin calculated the solar eclipse error, but Xu Guangqi's calculation with western learning was consistent with the actual measurement. Xu Guangqi, then Minister of Rites, once again proposed to revise the calendar. It was in this year that Emperor Chongzhen approved the revision plan of Dali proposed by Xu Guangqi, ordered the establishment of Calendar Bureau, led by Xu Guangqi, and asked him to "learn from others". "Different viewpoints of different schools should be integrated." On the orders of Emperor Chongzhen, Xu Guangqi set up the West Bureau in Qin Tian Prison. 1629 ~ 1634 Xu Guangqi, Li zhizao and Li Tianjing successively used western methods to supervise calendars, and appointed westerners Tang Ruowang (Germany), giacomo Luo (Italy), Niccolo Longobardi (Italy) and Deng Hanyu (J. Terrentius,
During the Chongzhen period, some people also opposed the western calendar. At that time, Wei, a commoner, wrote two books, era and calendar measurement, which were dedicated to the court and criticized Xu Guangqi's method of appointing the West, but he was not interfered by the administrative department. The government set up the East Bureau, a folk calendar institution, and the West Bureau, led by Xu Guangqi, for him to have an equal public debate with the original four institutions, the Dali Bureau and the Hui Hui Calendar Bureau. Discuss with Wei and Xu Guangqi. The title is Calendar Bureau and Wei Debate Draft. "After ten years of struggle, Chinese and Western calendars clashed eight times, and finally the Chongzhen calendar was declared correct. "It is in this good atmosphere that a hundred schools of thought contend and a hundred flowers blossom that the calendar reform organized by Xu Guangqi, Li Tianjing and others conquered people's hearts. [ 12]
The Calendar of Chongzhen is a large-scale series compiled with the support of the Ming government headed by Emperor Chongzhen, which introduces the knowledge of western mathematics and astronomy. Chongzhen almanac *** 137. Including more than 30 books, such as Chronology of Celestial Bodies, Theory of Armillaries, and Astrology Almanac, and referring to the astronomical knowledge that was relatively new in Europe at that time, such as Kepler/KOOC-0/6/KOOC-0/9, Cosmic Harmony, Copernicus/KOOC-0/62/KOOC-0/9. With the item 17 recorded by Copernicus for 27 times, this paper introduces Galileo's sunspot phenomenon, translates some materials in Kepler's On the Motion of Mars, and expounds Tycho's solar system structure system with 1/3. The calculation method adopts the geometric methods of Copernicus and Kepler in the modern west. "Chongzhen Yearbook" quoted a large number of chapters and charts in "The Operation of Celestial Bodies" and regarded Copernicus as one of the four greatest astronomers in European history.
After the Tycho system was adopted, the almanac of Chongzhen was quickly accepted by the astronomical circles in China at that time. For example, the count theory in Suzhou in the late Ming Dynasty is explained by the theory that the heavens have their own movement, power and drive. [13] The almanac of Chongzhen is divided into five basic items: law source, law number, law calculation, documents and communication.
When Xu Guangqi presided over the calendar reform, he put forward a set of methods to develop astronomy. He said: "To do things tomorrow, as long as you have profound ethics, clear figures, careful selection of people, careful testing, and catching up with the sky ... there is no other way." [14] In Xu Guangqi's view, the revision of "Chongzhen Almanac" is not only for revision. And can be the basis of everything. This book will be read several times more every year. Since the meaning of the law is clear, those who are clear can legislate and pass it on to their people. Hundreds of years later, they will see the violation and explain the reasons, so they will change the constitution by measuring the sky. This so-called today's method can be better than today's method, and the latecomers are better than today's method. The almanac of Chongzhen is written according to this goal, as a part of the basic theory. And this part of the content ranks first in the "five orders". Fayuan occupies the core part, with more than 40 volumes, accounting for 1/3 of the calendar of Chongzhen, which is unique in the revision of China calendar law.
In "Chongzhen Almanac", big survey, whole meaning survey, secant circle eight-line table, eight-line table, north-south high arc table and high arc table are introduced into plane and sphere, and two calculation tools are introduced into proportional solution and calculation.
The achievement of Chongzhen Almanac was the most advanced in the world at that time. The almanac of Chongzhen not only represents the academic achievement of "Western learning spreading to the east", but also represents China's acceptance of western astronomy. What is commendable is that the scientists in Ming Dynasty critically absorbed western scientific and technological knowledge, and the government provided a good environment for scientific research.
The revision of Chongzhen almanac was completed in 1634. Xu Guangqi's "Dongge Academy" and "Wenyuange Academy" at that time. He became a cabinet college student in Chongzhen five years ago and was deeply trusted by Chongzhen. He was ill, but Chongzhen refused to let him go home and even let him die in the office. "Emperor Chongzhen was deeply saddened by Xu Guangqi's death. One day after hearing about his funeral, he quit." Li Gang, the minister of rites, was also ordered to preside over the funeral ceremony and sent someone to escort him back to Shanghai for condolences. 1633 Galileo, known as one of the founders of modern science, was sentenced to life imprisonment by the Vatican, and his later years were extremely miserable. It can be said that China's Ming government's support for scientific research, especially mathematics and astronomy, surpassed that of Europe.
5. Royal Technology
In the Ming Dynasty, not only the literati showed great interest in science and research achievements, but also the imperial court actively supported scientific research. Even the rulers themselves took great interest in science and made great contributions. In addition to the most obvious examples of Xu Guangqi, Li Tianjing and Li Zhizao, let's look at others.
Zhu Xi (about 136 1 ~ 1425) is the fifth son of Zhu Yuanzhang, Judy's brother in Ming Taizu, and also his mare queen. He was once named King Wu and later renamed King Zhou. The scientific and technological works compiled by Zhu include "The Legacy of Protecting the Life".
Zhu Zaiyu (1536 ~161year), grandson of Zhu Yuanzhang IX, grandson of Injong VI, heir of Zheng Fan royal family, famous legalist, historian and mathematician in Ming Dynasty. He wrote a lot of music and mathematics works in his life. His father Zhu Houan is proficient in musicology and interested in music. He was a creative scholar in China feudal society, and also a superstar in the field of science and art in Ming Dynasty. Chinese and foreign scholars respectfully call him "the saint of the Oriental Renaissance". Zhu Zaiyu and Guo Moruo are listed as "world historical and cultural celebrities" together.
Yu, a former minister of the Ministry of War during Chongzhen, was one of the scholars who liked western learning in the late Ming Dynasty. He wrote the book Gezhicao, which is characterized by: "He not only made scientific research and records on individual natural phenomena, but more importantly, he deliberately sought universal principles and theorems from these individual studies. Therefore, there are many so-called "constancy" and "principled speeches" in his works. For example, the first volume contains The Constant Theory of Principles and Lectures on Principles. He is the author of "On Hanging Images", "Geographical Latitude" and "Chinese Language". Xiong Ming's experience had a great influence on Fang Yizhi, a great thinker in the late Ming Dynasty. Fang Yizhi's interest in natural science and western learning is related to Xiong Ming's enlightenment.
Matteo Ricci died in Beijing in 16 10 (thirty-eight years of Wanli) at the age of 59. He had more than 200 followers before his death. It is customary for foreigners to be buried in Macao after their death. However, in order to commemorate Matteo Ricci, China people went to the court to apply for land grant and were buried in Beijing. Ming Shenzong made an exception and allowed to play, and gave the funeral expenses to the western suburbs. Burying Li Zi and Writing Record of Setting up a Monument, the tombstone was set up by Wang Yinglin, the magistrate of Shuntian. When buried in October this year, all the officials of the civil and military departments attended the funeral, which was very solemn and grand. Italian Jesuit missionaries once recorded that "officials say to Prime Minister Ye Wenzhong from time to time (quoted from Ye, cabinet records):' All guests from afar have never been buried. Wen Zhonggong said,' When you meet an ancient guest, is his moral knowledge inferior to that of a son? If nothing else, it is its translation of the book Elements, that is, it should be given a burial place for Qin.
Ching Dynasty
The development of science and technology in Qing Dynasty was somewhat impressive. The 90-volume Golden Mirror of Medical Records, which was compiled by the government during the Qianlong period, collected many new cheats and experience prescriptions, and made many textual researches on synopsis of the golden chamber and treatise on febrile diseases. It is an important book to introduce the clinical experience of traditional Chinese medicine. Wang Qingren, a famous doctor in the Qing Dynasty, made outstanding achievements in medicine, and wrote a book "Medical Forest Errors". He emphasized the importance of anatomical knowledge. He also questioned the records of viscera in ancient books. He obtained twenty-five kinds of "right-eye viscera" through the anatomical study of corpse viscera, corrected some mistakes of predecessors and made beneficial contributions to the development of anatomy of the motherland.
Wang Xichan, whose real name is Yin Xu, is from Xiao 'an and Wujiang, Suzhou. He is the author of more than a dozen astronomical works, such as Xiao An Xin Fa and Wu Xing Shi. Proficient in Chinese and western calendars, can explain their reasons and investigate their gains and losses. He affirmed the advanced points of western calendars and pointed out many shortcomings and mistakes. He applied the algorithm of solar eclipse and lunar eclipse to some astronomical data.
Mei Wending, born in Xuancheng, whose real name is Ding Jiu. Wu An devoted his whole life to sorting out and expounding China's ancient calendars, and at the same time studied and introduced western science. His books on astronomy, calendar and mathematics are * * *.
86 species, which have made great contributions to sorting out Chinese and foreign scientific knowledge. His General Examination of Ancient and Modern Calendars is China's first historical work. His magnum opus General Mathematics in China and the West almost summarized all the knowledge of mathematics in the world at that time, reaching the highest level of mathematics research in China at that time. In the part of equation theory, he expounded the originality of China's ancient equation, and pointed out that this algorithm was not available in the west. He also carried forward the achievements of China's ancient algorithm in Pythagorean metrology and ancient preservation with nine numbers. In addition, in the sections of "block measurement" and "geometric correction", he introduced the western sphericity and discussed and developed the western solid geometry. In preparation, calculation and solution of proportional number, western logarithm and Galileo's proportional gauge are explained and introduced.
Minggatu, a famous Mongolian calendar mathematician, was the supervisor of the Qin Dynasty during Qianlong. At that time, three analytic formulas about trigonometric functions were introduced from Europe, namely, three methods of tangent circle (circle diameter is circumference, sine is solitary back, and positive vector is chord back), but there is only one formula, and there is no proof method of the formula. China scholars have long been troubled to know this, but they don't know why. This situation brought some difficulties to mathematicians at that time to master and apply this knowledge. After more than 30 years of in-depth research, Mingatu wrote four volumes of Secant Circle Density Method, which not only proved three formulas by the method of secant circle plus proportion, but also created a series of new formulas, such as finding chord through arc back, finding arc back through chord, finding arc back through normal vector and so on. This is Mingatou's outstanding contribution to mathematics. He was the first person in China to study pi by analytical method. What is particularly worth mentioning is geographical mapping. Kangxi organized manpower to carry out geodesy throughout the country. After more than 30 years of planning and mapping, a panoramic view of the empire was produced. This map "is not only the best map in Asia at that time, but also better and more accurate than all maps in Europe at that time" (History of Science and Technology of Needham China, Volume 5). During the Qianlong period, Minggatu and others were sent to Xinjiang and other places for surveying and mapping twice. Finally, on the basis of the royal panorama, according to the new surveying and mapping data, the "Full Map of Ganlong Palace" was made. In this map, the Xinjiang region of the Qing Empire is drawn in detail for the first time. These two pictures are still of great reference value. The Map of the Territory of the Qing Dynasty, which reconstructed the unified records of the Qing Dynasty, was drawn in the 15th year of Jiaziye (1820), and basically reflected the territory of China at that time. However, due to the forbidden religion in Yongzheng period and the subsequent closed-door policy, the opportunity to learn from each other was lost. In addition, the Qing Dynasty continued the bad habits of imperial examinations, literary inquisition and stereotyped writing in the Ming Dynasty, which made China science gradually lose its leading position in the world.