(A) the genetic origin of mustard
The study on the genetic origin of mustard begins with cytogenetic research. Morinaga and Sasaoka studied the chromosome pairing behavior in meiosis of interspecific hybrids in Brassica deeply, and thought that there was a close genetic relationship among several species. When crossing mustard (n = 18) with Brassica (B. rapa, n = 10), Chinese scholars generally think that it should be written as cabbage type, but in recent years, no scholars have written it as cabbage type at international cruciferous conferences. The chromosome pairing in the metaphase of F meiosis is 10II (10 bivalent) +8I (8 univalent), while when mustard crosses black mustard, the chromosome pairing in the metaphase of F meiosis is 8II+ 10I(n = 8). Therefore, it can be inferred that mustard is an allotetraploid or diploid synthesized by crossing Chinese cabbage rape with black mustard. It is suggested that the genome of Brassica napus is A, B, C and AB. U Nagah (1953) put forward the cytogenetic relationship hypothesis of six species of Brassica, and established the famous Yu's triangle model (Figure 9- 1).
Figure 9- 1 Yu's triangle pattern diagram
Later, three compound species, Brassica juncea, Brassica napus and Brassica napus, were synthesized by artificial hybridization. Their characteristics are consistent with the above three natural species in morphological characteristics and cytological structure, and there is no reproductive isolation between the synthetic materials and the naturally occurring plants of this species, which strongly proves the genetic origin of mustard, which is formed by crossing black mustard with Chinese cabbage rape. This view has been widely recognized by academic circles.
(2) The geographical origin of mustard.
The geographical origin of mustard is mainly based on four aspects of evidence: first, the opinions of authoritative experts; Second, archaeological discoveries; Third, ancient literature records; The fourth is the distribution of wild species and original parents. When the four are unified, it is easy to draw a conclusion, otherwise, it is difficult to draw a consistent conclusion. The geographical origin of mustard is not only inconsistent with the three, but also the internal details of the three.
1. Views of authoritative scholars
So far, many scholars have devoted themselves to this issue, but due to the differences in research fields, materials and research methods, they have come to different views:
1926, vavilov believed that Central Asia, northwestern India, Pakistan and Kashmir were the primary origin centers of mustard seed, while central and western China, eastern India and Myanmar, Asia Minor and Iran were the three secondary origin centers. In the book "Theoretical Basis of Breeding" officially published by 1935, vavilov also believes that the mountainous areas in central and western China and its neighboring lowlands, Central Asia, namely, northwestern India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and the western Tianshan Mountains in the former Soviet Union are the origins of mustard, and China is the oriental birthplace of mustard. West Asia (Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Iran and mountainous Turkmenistan) and Indian origin centers (including Assam province and Myanmar in eastern India) are the secondary origin centers of mustard.
Burkitl I.H.( 1930) believes that mustard originated in the arid areas of northern and central Africa, and was introduced to the West Indies from there. It may also be native to the interior of China, from which it was introduced into Malaysia. Sinskaya (1928) thinks that mustard originated in Asia, and there are many main variation types in China. Simons N.W.( 1979) believes that mustard originated in northern India, while its original mother, black mustard, originated in the Near East, and Brassica originated in the Mediterranean and the Near East. Hemingway (1976) thought that the original origin center of mustard was from Central Asia to the Himalayas, and then moved to three secondary origin centers: Indian, China and Caucasus. Vaughan et al. (1963) reported that black mustard hybridized independently with local species or subspecies with n = 10 in the above areas and originated many times. Chun Qing, Qing Chuan (1978) thinks that Central Asia is the primary origin center of mustard, which is formed by natural hybridization between black mustard and Brassica campestris along the coast of China.
1979 The mustard strips in Ci Hai indicate that mustard is native to China. Agricultural Encyclopedia Vegetable Volume (1990) published by Agricultural Publishing House also indicates that mustard originated in China.
Sun (1970) thinks that mustard originated in the Middle East in prehistoric times, and China is not the origin of mustard. Because there are no two parents of mustard in China, cabbage type and black mustard type.
Tan (1980) thinks that black mustard from China's coastal areas spread from Asia Minor to Central Asia, and from Central Asia to India and China. The year when it was introduced into China was about 700 AD. The chromosomes of distant hybridization between black mustard and kale in the origin center and adjacent areas naturally doubled to form Ethiopian rape; The black mustard introduced to China is crossed with Brassica napus or turnip, and then naturally doubled to form mustard. Therefore, mustard in China is neither a so-called "wild mustard" nor a new species of black mustard, but a new epigenetic species in the natural environment of eastern, southern or western China.
Li Jiawen (198 1) thinks that turnip, mustard, radish and other 18 kinds of vegetables have been widely planted in Shaanxi, Henan, Hebei, Shandong, Hubei and other provinces, while China was isolated from the outside world at that time, so these vegetables (including mustard) should all have originated in China.
Bo Hua Mu (198 1) listed 237 kinds of prehistoric or native cultivated plants in China, including mustard, through the analysis of a large number of historical books and the comparison of modern Chinese and foreign documents, but there was no mustard among several cultivated plants imported from other places in BC and later.
Li Shuxuan (1982) thinks that China is one of the origins of mustard, and Sichuan Basin in China is the center of small gene or secondary differentiation of mustard.
Chen Shiru (1982) wrote in the article Origin and Differentiation of Mustard Varieties in China: "Mustard is widely distributed as an oil crop in China, India, Egypt, the south, southwest and Europe of the former Soviet Union, but interestingly, it was originally limited to China as a vegetable crop. According to the fact that many kinds of mustard were found in China, it is obvious that China is a vegetable crop.
According to "China Ancient Agricultural Science and Technology", "Mustard, a Brassicaceae plant, originated in China, is one of the special vegetables in China, with different varieties of roots, stems and leaves".
Liu (1984), after comparing various viewpoints of Chinese and foreign scholars, also thinks that northwest China is one of the origins of black mustard and mustard.
Song Keming and others (1988) believe that the RFLP data obtained from the experiment, combined with the phylogenetic evidence and natural distribution characteristics of mustard, support the view that mustard has at least two origin centers, one in the Middle East and India, and the other in China.
To sum up, we have the following opinions or views on the origin of mustard: ① it originated in the Middle East or the Mediterranean coast; ② Originated in northern and central Africa; ③ Originated in Central Asia; ④ Originated in the east, south or west of China.
It is not difficult to see that most foreign scholars hold the first three views. This is because the genetic origin of mustard is not completely consistent with the conclusion of geographical origin and diversity center, and the genetic diversity center of mustard is not consistent with the distribution of wild mustard species. Chongqing and Sichuan provinces in the southwest of China are the diversity centers of mustard, with almost all types except some variation types, such as heading mustard. However, in these areas, there are no wild black mustard and mustard required for the formation of mustard compound crops, and the study on the origin of mustard started late and the historical materials are incomplete, which makes it complicated to understand the origin of mustard.
2. Archaeological discoveries
Among the archaeological discoveries, one is the textual research of Banpo Site, and the other is the textual research of Mawangdui No.1 Han Tomb.
1954, in the archaeological work of Banpo (Yangshao culture) in the suburb of Xi, Shaanxi Province, Chinese archaeologists unearthed carbonized vegetables stored in clay pots by primitive people in the Neolithic primitive social and cultural sites more than 6,800 years ago, with the age of 6,000 ~ 7,000 years ago. It was identified by Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences as a seed of mustard or cabbage. Primitive humans living in tribal groups can't introduce and cultivate plants from a long distance, but can only coexist with aquatic plants, and gradually develop from collecting wild plants near their habitats to consciously preserving seeds for cultivation. Therefore, there is no reason to think that the cabbage or mustard found in Banpo site is not an ancient prehistoric plant in China.
Textual research on Mawangdui No.1 Han Tomb. The cultural relics unearthed from Mawangdui No.1 Han Tomb in Changsha, Hunan Province are extremely rich, among which there are many kinds of agricultural products. Among these cultural relics, there are both physical objects and bamboo slips written records. Among the 3 12 bamboo slips, 7 recorded the names of vegetables, including mustard, sunflower, ginger, lotus root, bamboo shoots and taro. At the same time, there are fruits and seeds of the above plants. During the Western Han Dynasty, 18 important cultivated crops introduced from Central Asia and India during Zhang Qian's voyage to the Western Ocean around 100 BC and 7 1 main cultivated crops introduced from Asia, Africa and Europe after A.D. were not found in the No.1 Han Tomb in Mawangdui, Changsha, indicating that the crops in the tomb were all native to China, not exotic species.
3. Ancient literature records
There is already a poem in The Book of Songs Gufeng, which was written more than 2,500 years ago, that is, "weeds are harvested in the Philippines, and things are under the body." "Fen" and "II" state that "Fen is different from Fen, and the sound is the same, then Fen is also, Xu is also, Wu is also, Fen is also, Fen is also, mustard is also, and seven things are also." 1978 published "Ci Hai", known as "dysprosium, radish". Experts in past dynasties have interpreted fennel as a kind of vegetables, such as mustard, radish, mustard and so on. It shows that mustard was planted and utilized in the vast areas of Shaanxi, Henan, Hebei, Shandong, Hubei and other provinces as early as the 5th-7th century BC.
Mencius (about 372 BC-289 BC) discussed the relationship between monarch and minister in The Merchant of Gao Qiu: "When a monarch regards his minister as a brother, he regards him as his heart; If you treat me like a dog or a horse, then I will treat you like a Chinese; You treat me like dirt, and I treat you like hatred. " As can be seen from the above, mustard was once as common as grass in Qilu (now Shandong and Hebei), or it is not surprising that mustard, like grass, only has simple leaves with complex morphological differentiation.
During the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD), there was a record of "fish mustard sauce" in the Internal Rules of the Book of Rites, indicating that mustard was mainly made into sauce as seasoning at that time. At the same time, there was a mustard article in Yin Shu, which recorded that "... the suburbs of Zhao and Wei were called big mustard, while the small ones were called spicy mustard or secluded mustard." It shows that mustard also has variation in plant size at that time, which is undoubtedly the result of natural and artificial selection. Shuoyuan records that melons, mustard greens, sunflowers, Polygonum hydropiper, onions, etc. It is widely cultivated in China. In the 1 century, in the Central Plains, mustard will be planted in July and August, and rapeseed will be harvested after the middle summer of the following year. Judging from the recorded cultivation time, the growth period of mustard at that time was longer than that of mustard at present, which may be because mustard was older at that time, and the growth period was shortened through artificial selection and self-evolution, or it may be related to the climatic conditions at that time. It is recorded in April People's Decree (about 166) that turnips and mustard were sown in July and harvested in April in the 2nd century. At this time, mustard can be distinguished from turnips. In terms of utilization, it has developed from using seeds as seasoning to eating nutritional organs, and "the valley feeds the people and the vegetables feed" has officially become a vegetable. In addition, in Zhou Xingsi's Thousand Pieces of the Liang Dynasty, there is a saying that "vegetables are more important than ginger mustard", to which Jeff Lee explained: "This is because farmers at that time worked hard every day, and it was inevitable that they felt immoral. If they often eat vegetables, such as mustard and ginger, they can have the effect of expelling cold and wind and reducing diseases. " This shows that they not only understand the vegetable value of mustard, but also realize its medicinal effect. The section on "Planting Mustard" in Qi Shu published by the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534) wrote: "Those who take leaf mustard in Shu all plant it in July and a half, and the land is ripe. One liter is used for one mu of Sichuan mustard, and four liters is used for one mu of mustard. The planting method is the same as radish. Not only was he born, but he was not uprooted. /kloc-When radish was harvested in October, Sichuan mustard was harvested. Brassica, full frost is a harvest. " In addition, it is marked in small print as "salty and dry in the middle." "Mustard seeds, Sichuan mustard seeds, mustard seeds are planted when it rains in February and March. If there is drought, the border will be watered. Harvest in May. " In addition, there is a small note that says, "Three species are not cold-tolerant. They will die after winter and must be planted in spring." The above description shows that at least before the first half of the 6th century, mustard in Sichuan Basin had been differentiated from seed mustard to leaf mustard. The cultivation technology is mature, and turnip, Brassica, mustard and mustard can be distinguished in understanding. In addition to condiments and fresh food, there has been a relatively primitive processing technology. Chen Shiru believes that the so-called "Sichuan mustard" may be a mustard variety introduced from Sichuan to the north. The records of "Southern Mustard and Giant Mustard" in Lingbiao Lu Yi show that in the 6th-7th century, there was a strong variation of mustard in Lingnan area, and the number of plants increased significantly, becoming "Giant Mustard". In the Compendium of Materia Medica published in the Northern Song Dynasty (106 1), "Mustard is everywhere, with green mustard and hairy taste; Purple mustard is the most beautiful horseshoe crab with pure purple stems and leaves, which shows that mustard has been widely planted in China since the 20th century, including the type of Chinese cabbage (fermented grains) with light leaves, extremely spicy taste and variation of purple leaves.
It is recorded in Xuepu Miscellaneous Books in the Ming Dynasty that "there are many kinds of mustard, and those who have the root of mustard think it is a vine, but ... they can be born in the northern home". It shows that at that time (A.D.16th century), the root mustard was differentiated, but it was confused by people at that time as turnip. In Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica (1578), "The food in April is called summer mustard, and the mustard is tender and smooth, and it is called kale, which is crispy and delicious." It shows that people didn't know that mustard had differentiated, but they didn't know alboglobra Bailey.
The famine policy in the book of agricultural administration in the Ming Dynasty records that wild mustard is a way to save famine and satisfy hunger: "Water mustard is abundant, and the seedlings are tall and tall." The leaves are small, the color is slightly green, the flowers are forked, the stems are thin, the flowers are small and yellow, the horns are short and short, and the taste is spicy. Save the hunger, pick the leaves of the seedlings and cook them, overflow the water to remove the spicy taste, wash them, and adjust the food with oil and salt. ""Mustard was born on the hillside of Mi County and Okano. The seedlings are one or two feet high, and the leaves are like mustard leaves, thin and short, slightly pointed and flowery. Open small yellow flowers and make small short horns. Spicy, slightly sweet, in order to save hunger, pick the leaves of seedlings, stir fry, and adjust the food with oil and salt. "It can be seen that wild mustard was seen in the agricultural books of the Ming Dynasty because of its effective function of alleviating hunger and saving lives. It is only because of population growth and intensification of reclamation that wild mustard has disappeared in densely populated agricultural areas like ancient mustard.
The Chronicle of Fuzhou in Fuling County (Qingganlong 5 1) records that "green vegetables are bracted, salted and spiced mustard tuber is pickled". It shows that before the middle of 18 century, mustard in the Yangtze River basin in the east of Sichuan Basin differentiated into stem mustard. The so-called "bud" refers to the tumor-like protrusion of mustard, and there is a "squeezing" process in the process of processing the stem into kimchi with mustard, so the processed product is called "kimchi".
4. Distribution of original parents and wild species
During the period of 1988, Chen and others investigated the wild mustard resources in northwest China. In Tekes, Xinyuan, Huocheng, Fukang and other cities and counties in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, as well as the Wild Walnut Valley Nature Reserve in Gong Liu, Huangzhong in Qinghai, Xining, Jiuquan in Gansu and other places, the distribution of what locals call wild mustard was found, and some seeds were collected. 1989 ——1990 was identified as mustard. The wild rape and wild mustard in the above areas are all wild mustard. There are not only wild black mustard (B.nigra) and turnip (B.rapa) in northwest China, but also diploid wild mustard (B.juncea) formed by natural hybridization between black mustard and turnip. In other words, the northwest is the storage area of wild mustard and its original parents.