Scholar-bureaucrats
Scholar-bureaucrats are the collective name for the bureaucratic humanistic intellectuals in ancient China. This is an elite social group, and China's official selection system (referred to as the "imperial examination system") is the institutional guarantee for its formation. They are not only direct participants in national politics, but also the creators and inheritors of Chinese culture and art. This is a social group unique to Chinese civilization.
Origin: spiritual origin
The class of "shi" appeared very early, and generally refers to civilian talents with certain talents. They often come from poor families or declining nobles. They rely on their skills to rely on the nobles and provide them with various services.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, wars broke out among the various heroes. Famous and wealthy princes and nobles from various countries, such as Lord Chun Shen and Lord Mengchang, all regard it as a fashion to "raise scholars". The number of people can reach thousands at most, and they compare and show off with each other. The allusion of "self-recommendation" shows that there was no special standard for "gentlemen" at that time. Even claiming to be talented could persuade a noble to become a "gentry".
It was Confucius who proposed the theoretical standard for "shi". "The Analects of Confucius·Zilu" Zigong asked: "How can such a person be called a great scholar?" Confucius replied: "Those who behave with shame and do not disgrace the emperor's order in all directions can be called scholars." This means that as long as people are strict with themselves, loyal to the emperor and patriotic, they can be called "scholars". Confucius' concepts of "scholar" and "gentleman" basically overlap.
This kind of "scholar" spirit is more of a "samurai" in practice. For example, Jing Ke, who failed to assassinate King Yingzheng of Qin, made a bold statement before setting off: "The wind is blowing and the water is cold, and a strong man will never return once he is gone." This kind of heroic spirit does not hesitate to pay the price of his life for the mission entrusted by the king. And noble quality is regarded as a spiritual model. This is also consistent with Confucius’s proposition.
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Formation: Institutional Guarantee
Dong Zhongshu of the Han Dynasty persuaded Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty to implement the policy of "deposing hundreds of schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone". From then on, the Confucianism of Confucius and his disciples began to become the mainstream philosophy in later generations. (Note: Confucianism has different status and importance in different generations)
Confucius’ teachings encourage intellectuals to “join the world”, that is, to directly participate in politics as officials to serve the king and the country. The official selection system in the Han Dynasty was not very complete. It was mainly the royal family and nobles who recommended some talents with high moral character to enter the government. For example, it is common for people who are famous for their "filial piety" to be selected as officials. Examination is not required.
During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove" appeared. They not only have high literary and artistic attainments, but also have noble moral integrity, but on the one hand they are unruly and unruly. Many of them would rather die drunk than work in a corrupt court. This kind of spiritual temperament is a useful supplement to Confucius's "scholar". That is, if the politics are dark, then staying away from politics because you are unwilling to join in the evil and being obsessed with literature and art is also in line with the ethics of the "scholar", that is, "hidden". This spirit can also find its matrix in the philosophy of Lao and Zhuang.
Although the imperial examination system existed during the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the only way to truly select government officials was after the Song Dynasty. The development of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism in the Song Dynasty further strengthened and developed Confucianism and occupied the mainstream position of philosophy. The improvement of the imperial examination system made the cultural examination the only legal way to become an official. "Excellence in learning leads to officialdom" and "Everything is inferior, only reading is good" began to be the mottos believed by scholars. On the other hand, a government official must also be a cultural person who has read the classics of Confucian poetry and books. This ensures from the political system that the "literary-officials" group must be an elite intellectual class.
In this way, the inheritance of philosophical spirit has an institutional guarantee, and the class of "scholar-officials" should be said to have been formally formed in the Song Dynasty.
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Development: Advances and retreats
The vast majority of "literary officials" cherish the idea of ??"worrying about the world first, and then enjoying the world." And happy" (Fan Zhongyan)'s lofty moral mission. Therefore, politics is their first priority in life; but at the same time, their cultural literacy also determines that they are the inheritors and creators of traditional Chinese culture such as literature, calligraphy, painting, seal cutting, antique collection, etc.
A typical example is "literati painting". Due to Song Huizong's personal hobbies, he strongly encouraged scholar-bureaucrats to devote themselves to painting creation. This further improves the cultural taste and artistry of the painting.
After the Song Dynasty, most of the great poets, great painters, and great calligraphers of the past dynasties were officials who had held important positions in the government. Such as Su Shi, Mi Fu, Cai Jing and so on. Like Li Bai of the Tang Dynasty, "liberal intellectuals" who did not have much political experience and were famous for their poetry were almost extinct. This situation lasted until the end of the Qing Dynasty.
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Decline: The demise of the imperial examination
Since the scholar-official class and the "imperial examination system" go hand in hand, then the demise of the imperial examination system also means the scholar-official class The lack of political system protection.
At the end of the Qing Dynasty (the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century), politics was facing a complete collapse amid internal and external troubles. The imperial examination system became increasingly backward amid the spread of Western learning to the east, becoming a "bottleneck" that restricted talents. However, the forced openness allowed Chinese scholars to see new knowledge and new ways of acquiring knowledge.
On September 2, 1905, Cixi issued an edict stating: "Starting from the Bingwu Examination, all township examinations will be stopped. The provincial examinations will also be stopped." This not only marked the end of the imperial examination system, but also produced major changes in China's education and culture. "Scholar-bureaucrat" has since become a historical term with an empty "scholar-bureaucrat complex" and no actual status. The monopoly of "literary officials" on knowledge, culture, and art no longer existed.