1, four great inventions and their spread to the west
(1) papermaking
1. In the early Western Han Dynasty, paper was used for writing and painting. Working people invented papermaking in practice and began to make paper with silk wadding and hemp fiber.
2. 105, Cai Lun, the eunuch of the Eastern Han Dynasty, summarized the previous experience, improved papermaking and made plant fiber paper, which made outstanding contributions to cultural development.
3. Papermaking later spread eastward to Korea and Japan, and westward to India and Arabia. During the Tang Dynasty, Arabs spread to Europe through North Africa.
China was the first country in the world to invent paper. It has promoted the exchange and spread of human culture and made great contributions to world civilization.
(2) printing
1. China was the first country in the world to invent printing.
2. There was block printing in Sui and Tang Dynasties. In 868, the Diamond Sutra volume printed by China was the earliest block printing with exact date in the world.
3. In the Northern Song Dynasty, civilian Bi Sheng invented pottery movable type printing. In Europe, it was not until15th century that the movable type edition appeared, which was 400 years later than Bi Sheng's invention.
4. Tin movable type and wood movable type appeared again in Yuan Dynasty.
Movable type printing spread eastward to Korea and Japan, and westward to Egypt and Europe, which promoted the spread and development of culture.
(3) Compass
1. During the Warring States Period, I made an instrument indicating the direction, Sina, and later I made a compass.
2. The Northern Song Dynasty was applied to navigation.
3. It was introduced to Europe by Arabs in Southern Song Dynasty, which provided important conditions for European navigators to open up new air routes.
(4) gunpowder
1. Gunpowder was invented by an alchemist in ancient China.
2. In the Tang Dynasty, Sun Simiao recorded the method of making gunpowder in Qian Jin Fang. It began to be used in the military in the late Tang Dynasty.
3. The Northern Song Dynasty was widely used to resist the attacks of Liao, Xixia and Jin. Gunpowder weapons at that time included muskets, rockets and artillery.
In the Yuan Dynasty, gunpowder and gunpowder weapons were spread to Europe through Arabs.
5. Exploding mining with gunpowder began in Ming Dynasty.
6. The introduction of gunpowder into Europe played a certain role in the European bourgeoisie's victory over feudal nobles.
The Four Great Inventions are the great contributions made by the ancient people of China to mankind, and also an important symbol that China has become an ancient civilization in the world.
2, astronomical calendar achievements
(1) According to legend, China had a calendar in the Xia Dynasty, and today's lunar calendar is also called the "Summer Calendar".
(2) The Shang Dynasty followed the summer calendar, got to know many constellations, and made the earliest record of solar and lunar eclipses in the world.
(3) During the Spring and Autumn Period, astronomers in Shandong Province observed 37 eclipses, 33 of which were proved to be reliable; The dates of winter solstice and summer solstice have also been determined. In 6 13 BC, astronomer Lu observed a comet and made the earliest record.
(4) During the Warring States Period, Shi Gan's astrology was the earliest astronomical work in the world, which recorded the movements of 800 stars and 5 planets. At that time, the main seasons of the year were also measured.
(5) BC 1 century ago, he wrote an astronomical work "Zhou Kuai Shu Jing".
(6) In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Heng made the world's earliest armillary sphere rotated by water, and invented the world's earliest seismograph to determine the direction of earthquakes, which was 1700 years earlier than Europe.
(7) The monks and their party in the Tang Dynasty measured the length of meridian for the first time in the world.
(8) The "Twelve-Qi Calendar" created by Shen Kuo in the Northern Song Dynasty was more than 800 years earlier than the similar calendar in Britain.
(9) In the Yuan Dynasty, Guo Shoujing accurately introduced 365.2425 days a year, which was 300 years earlier than the current Gregorian calendar. He presided over an unprecedented astronomical observation, with the northernmost observation being the North Sea (now Siberia) and the southernmost observation being the South China Sea (now Xisha Islands).
3. Mathematical achievements
(1) Western Zhou Dynasty: Shang Gao talks about the special case of Pythagorean Theorem "Hooking three strands, four chords and five", which is contained in Zhou pian Shu Jing.
(2) Spring and Autumn Period: 99 multiplication table
(3) Western Han Dynasty: Liu Xin calculated pi as 3. 1547.
(4) Eastern Han Dynasty: Nine Chapters Arithmetic was the most advanced applied mathematics in the world at that time.
(5) Three Kingdoms: Liu Hui applied the limit theory and put forward the correct method to calculate pi.
(6) Southern Dynasties: Zu Chongzhi accurately calculated pi between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, earlier than Europe 1000. He also annotated nine chapters on arithmetic. He also wrote books such as composition.
4. Medical achievements
1. Doctors' treatment has been divided into internal medicine, surgery, gynecology and pediatrics.
2. The "Four Diagnoses" invented by Bian Que is a traditional diagnostic method of TCM.
3. Neijing put forward the theory of pathology, which reflected the early achievements of ancient medicine in China.
1. Zhang Zhongjing wrote Treatise on Febrile Diseases, expounded the theory and treatment principles of traditional Chinese medicine, and laid the foundation of TCM therapeutics. Later generations revered him as a "medical sage".
Hua Tuo invented "Ma Fei San", which is the first general anesthesia method in the world. Create a gymnastics "Five Animals Show".
1. Emperor Taizong started medical schools of different disciplines, which was 200 years earlier than that in the west.
2. Herbal Medicine of Tang Dynasty, edited by Tang Gaozong, is the first national pharmacopoeia in the world.
3. Sun Simiao, the "King of Medicine", wrote Qian Jin Fang, which recorded more than 800 kinds of drugs and more than 5,000 prescriptions.
(4) Ming Dynasty: Li Shizhen wrote Pharmacology of Compendium of Materia Medica, which recorded more than 10000 prescriptions and 1800 drugs. It was the richest and most detailed pharmacological work in the world at that time, which was translated into many languages and became an important document of world pharmacology.
5. Architectural achievements
(1) During the Warring States Period, Lu Ban was the granddaddy of carpenters and was called "Lu Ban Ye".
(2) Qin Changcheng.
Zhao Zhouqiao, designed and built by Li Chun, a craftsman of Sui Dynasty, is the oldest stone arch bridge in the world.
(4) Chang 'an, Tang Dou, with palace, yamen, square and city separated, was an international metropolis at that time.
(5) Beijing in Ming Dynasty is a masterpiece of ancient urban architecture, with neat layout and magnificent architecture.
6, scientific and technological works
(1) Requirements of Qi People: It was written by Jia Sixie in the Northern Wei Dynasty, which is the earliest and most complete agricultural book in existence.
(2) Meng Qian's BiTan: What Shen Kuo wrote in the Northern Song Dynasty is a precious heritage in the history of China's scientific development.
(3) The Complete Book of Agricultural Administration: written by Xu Guangqi in the late Ming Dynasty, it discusses agricultural theory and introduces European water conservancy methods, which is an excellent agricultural work in ancient China.
(4) Heavenly Creations: It was written by Song, a scientist in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and was praised by later generations as "17th century encyclopedia of arts and crafts in China".
(2) Literary achievements
For example 1
The Tang Dynasty was an era of poetry prosperity in the history of China. The most famous poets are poets Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi, whose poems are easy to understand. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan were famous essayists in the Tang Dynasty, ranking first among the "Eight Great Masters in the Tang and Song Dynasties". The representative works of Tang legends include biography of Conan Taishou, biography of Li Wa and biography of Liu Yi.
For example, 2
The main achievement of Song Dynasty literature is Ci, and famous poets include Su Shi, Li Qingzhao and Xin Qiji. Lu You, a poet in the Southern Song Dynasty, has more than 9,000 poems, which is the poet with the most works in ancient China.
(3) Historical achievements
1, Spring and Autumn Period: During the Spring and Autumn Period, Confucius compiled Spring and Autumn Annals based on historical materials of Lu, which was the first chronicle of China.
2. Han dynasty:
(1) Sima Qian and Historical Records: Sima Qian lived in the era of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty and was an outstanding historian and writer in ancient China. Historical Records is the first biographical general history of China in ancient times, which records the history from the legendary Huangdi to Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty from 2000 to 3000, and has become a model for compiling historical books in China. Historical Records is also an excellent biographical literary work.
(2) Ban Gu, a historian of the Eastern Han Dynasty, wrote China's first dynastic history, Hanshu, which recorded the history from Liu Bangjian to Wang Mang's downfall. Ye Fan in the Southern Dynasties wrote the Book of the Later Han Dynasty, which recorded the history of the Eastern Han Dynasty.
3. Tang Dynasty: Emperor Taizong established the National History Museum. The official history of the early Tang Dynasty includes The Book of Jin, Liang Shu, Chen Shu and Sui Shu. After that, it was included in Twenty-four History. The greatest achievements in the history of the Tang Dynasty are Liu Zhiji's Shi Tong (the first historical theory work in the history of China) and Du You's Tong Dian (which recorded the changes of laws and regulations in past dynasties in different categories and created a new style of history books).
4. Northern Song Dynasty: The History of Zi Tongzhi Jianshi, edited by Sima Guang, a historian of the Northern Song Dynasty, records the history from the Warring States to the Five Dynasties 1300 years, which is a famous chronological general history in ancient China.
(D) Ideological achievements
1, Confucianism
(1) Confucius, a native of Lu in the Spring and Autumn Period, was a great thinker. He founded the Confucian school and put forward the theory of "benevolence" (which is the core of Confucius' thought), and advocated governing the country by virtue. His theory later became the orthodoxy of China's feudal culture for more than two thousand years, which had a great influence on later generations.
(2) Mencius and Xunzi were important representatives of Confucianism in the Warring States Period. Mencius, written by Mencius, puts forward that "the people are more important than the monarch" (this is the basis of Mencius' political thought) and advocates "benevolent politics" He also preached that "hardworking people rule the people, and hardworking people rule the people." Mencius' thought had an important influence on the later feudal rule. Xunzi, who wrote Xunzi, believes that the changes in nature have certain laws, and human power can conquer nature. He is a materialist thinker.
(3) During the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu gave full play to Confucianism, deified kingship, advocated the idea of "great unification" and put forward the suggestion of "ousting a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone". Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's theory and educated young children with Confucianism, which gradually became the ruling ideology of feudal society.
2. Progressive thinkers and ideas
(1) At the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao Zi, a native of Chu, wrote The Classic of Tao Te Ching, arguing that everything is antagonistic, and the opposing sides will transform into each other.
(2) Xun Kuang, an important representative of Confucianism during the Warring States Period, believed that the sun, the moon and the stars, stormy weather and the turn of spring and summer were all changes in nature, and the changes in nature had certain laws. Human power can conquer nature, and we should use nature to serve mankind. This idea of man conquering nature reflects the strengthening of people's struggle against nature at that time.
(3) In the early years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Wang Chong wrote Lun Heng, denying the theory of destiny and superstitious about ghosts and gods.
(4) Fan Zhen, an atheist in the Southern Dynasties, wrote "On the Extinction of Immortals" aiming at the fallacy of immortals advocated by Buddhist scriptures, and systematically expounded atheism. He believes that human spirit depends on the body, which is essentially that matter comes first and spirit comes second. Fan Zhen strongly refuted the popular theism at that time. Deism is a valuable legacy in the history of China's thought.
(5) In the middle Tang Dynasty, Liu Zongyuan wrote The Theory of Heaven, arguing that the universe is made of matter and has nothing to do with destiny; The development of human history has its inevitable laws, and it is not transferred by the will of "saints". Liu Yuxi wrote "The Theory of Heaven", proposing that heaven and earth are all made of matter; It is believed that heaven and man "win each other and use each other", that is, nature interacts with people.
(6) Wang Fuzhi in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties believed that the world was made of matter and existed independently of people's subjective consciousness. He also attaches importance to the role of practice in people's understanding. Wang Fuzhi occupies an important position in the history of ancient philosophy in China.
3. Other thinkers
For example, a hundred schools of thought contend (omitted)
(5) Religion
1, Buddhism
2. Taoism
3. Zoroastrianism, Nestorianism, Manichaeism and Islam
(6) Art
1, painting
take for example
In the early Qing Dynasty, Shi Tao and Zhu Da's landscape paintings broke through the stereotypes. In the middle of Qing Dynasty, the most famous painters in Yangzhou were Jin Nong, Zheng Xie, Huang Shen, Li, Gao Xiang and Wang. Their paintings are eclectic and have their own characteristics, and they are called "Yangzhou Eight Eccentrics". Among them, orchids and bamboos painted by Zheng Banqiao are the most famous.
2. Chinese characters and calligraphy
(1) There are twenty or thirty kinds of symbols carved on the mouth edge of pottery unearthed in Banpo, which may be the origin of China's original characters.
(2) Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Shang Dynasty is a relatively mature script, which is the predecessor of Chinese characters today.
(3) During the Warring States Period, due to the separatist regime, the personalities of different countries were also different.
(4) Qin was used as a standard font, and then official script appeared. Now regular script is transformed from official script.
(5) At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, calligraphy gradually became an art.
(6) Zhong You of Cao Wei began to turn official script into regular script.
(7) Wang Xizhi's original calligraphy in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He is good at regular script, running script and cursive script, and his masterpiece is Preface to Lanting. Known as the "book saint"
A. Yan Zhenqing: Yan Ti is called "Yan Jin", and its masterpiece is "Duobaota Brand".
B. Liu Gongquan: Liu Ti is called "Six Valleys", and his masterpiece is Mysterious Tower Monument.
A. Calligraphy became a popular art among literati in Song and Yuan Dynasties, especially running script.
B The famous calligraphers in Song Dynasty, such as Su Shi, Huang Tingjian, Mi Fei and Cai Xiang, were called "Four Masters".
C. Zhao Mengfu's calligraphy in Yuan Dynasty is extensive and profound, vigorous and powerful.
3. Grotto art
(1) Yungang Grottoes
(2) Longmen Grottoes
(3) Mogao Grottoes
4. Music (omitted)
(7) Education
1, private school
(1) Confucius, a great educator in the Spring and Autumn Period, set up private schools, which expanded the educational objects and broke through the government's monopoly on culture and education.
(2) During the Warring States Period, many schools of thought contended for private teaching.
(3) After the Anshi Rebellion, there were many private schools in the Tang Dynasty. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, great writers in the Tang Dynasty, both set up private schools.
A. private colleges have emerged.
B. The distinctive feature is to pay attention to teaching feudal ethics, encourage discussion and debate in learning methods, and let students tell their own experiences.
Shigu Academy in Hengyang, Hunan, Yuelu Academy in Changsha.
C. Songyang Academy at the southern foot of Taishi Mountain in Dengfeng, Henan, and Yingtian Academy in Shangqiu.
Bailudong Academy in Lushan Mountain, Jiangxi Province.
(5) Since the mid-Ming Dynasty, academies have flourished. Gu Xiancheng came to Donglin Academy after he was dismissed from office, and got together with like-minded scholar-officials to give lectures. They attacked the eunuch's autocratic power and other corruption phenomena, which had a great influence. Later, he was persecuted by Wei Zhongxian as "Lindong party member".
(6) In the Qing Dynasty, academies gradually became government-run schools.
2. Official research
(1) In the slave society, the slave owners and nobles monopolized education and studied in the government.
1. Central Committee: Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty vigorously promoted Confucian education and set up a imperial academy in Chang 'an, with poetry, calligraphy, rites, the Book of Changes, the Spring and Autumn Period and the Five Classics as teaching contents. Imperial College was the highest institution of learning in ancient China.
2. Place: Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty also ordered all counties and countries in the world to run schools, and initially established a local education system.
1. The imperial examination system in Sui and Tang Dynasties promoted the development of education.
2. The school system in the Tang Dynasty was complete, reaching the advanced level in the world at that time, and there was a complete school system from the central government to the local government.
3. The central government has Guo Zi School and Imperial College London. There are state schools, county schools and township schools.
4. Professional education began to be established, and professional schools for natural sciences such as arithmetic, astronomy and medicine appeared.
1. The school system is more perfect. There are imperial academy, Guo Zi School, Law School, Arithmetic School, Calligraphy School and Painting School in the Central Committee, among which imperial academy and Guo Zi School are the most important.
2. Wang Anshi reformed the imperial examination and academic system. Imperial academy has three levels, and the elimination system is implemented step by step.
3. The local state and county schools are thriving.
1. The imperial examination system in Ming Dynasty stipulated that one exam should be taken every three years, which was divided into three levels: after having obtained the provincial examination, after the senior high school entrance examination and palace examination. Those who succeed in provincial and township examinations are called juries. Juren will pass the exam in Beijing and take part in the court exam. The imperial examination was conducted by the emperor himself, and the trial was divided into one, two, three, one and three, which were called the champion, the second place and the flower exploration respectively, and were called "Jinshi He".
2. People who were born in the imperial examinations in the Ming Dynasty had a high status, and most senior officials at all levels in the central government were literati wanderers.
3. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, the official school of the Central Committee was named Guo Zi School, later changed to imperial academy, and the student was named Guo Jianzi.
4. There are local governments, state and county schools.
5. In the education of Ming Dynasty, the autocratic monarchy was very powerful, and students were forbidden to hold their own opinions, which made them hell to pay for violating feudal ethics.
(6) Imperial examinations and schools in the early Qing Dynasty basically inherited the system of the Ming Dynasty, and further strengthened ideological control and cultural autocracy in education.