In recent years, there are more and more studies on the dating of Mongolian studies. For example, the textbook Enlightenment in Ming Dynasty written by Xiong Chengdi (curriculum, teaching materials, teaching methods 199 1No. 1 1) and Enlightenment in Yuan Dynasty written by Xu Yong (Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Science Edition) 1993). In-depth study of "Enlightenment in Song and Yuan Dynasties", Gao Shiliang's "Outline of China's Education History" (ancient part) (People's Education Press 199 1 March edition) lists a special section to in-depth study of "Enlightenment in Qing Dynasty".
The fourth section of Chapter 7 of the History of Education in China edited by Sun Peiqing is summarized as follows:
In the long-term teaching practice, the Song and Yuan Dynasties accumulated some successful experiences, the most prominent of which are the following three points:
First, emphasize strict requirements and lay a good foundation. Basic education is basic education. Strict requirements and laying a good foundation at this stage will play a long-term role in the future development of children. Therefore, Mongolian education in Song and Yuan Dynasties attached great importance to strict basic training for children. For example, in terms of life etiquette, children are required to be respectful, upright, audio-visual, careful in using words, dignified in appearance, well dressed, frugal in diet and tidy in the classroom. In learning, children are required to read aloud, "Not a word can be missed, not a word can be missing, not a word can be added, not a word can be inverted", and they should be familiar with it. Writing must be "one stroke, one painting, solemn and clear, not sloppy". And pay special attention to the cultivation of good study habits. For example, it is required: "Every reader must correct several cases to make them clean and correct. Put the books in order, straighten your body, and read them carefully. "All books should be taken care of, and they can't be damaged and wrinkled." "There are three ways to read, namely, heart, eyes and mouth" and so on. Once a good habit of living and studying is formed, it will not only benefit children's growth, but also benefit them for life.
Second, attach importance to cultivating children's behavior habits in the form of "instructions" and "learning rules". Children in the early stages of learning are very plastic. In order to cultivate children's behavior habits, educators in Song and Yuan Dynasties formulated various forms of Xueji and Xuegui as norms to regulate children's behavior. For example, Zhu's Instructions for Children has detailed regulations on children's clothes and shoes, language trends, sweeping the floor, reading and writing, and chores. The learning rules of Cheng Duanmeng and Dong Zhu also put forward specific requirements for children's life and study. Although these regulations and requirements are inevitably cumbersome and have the defects of inhibiting children's personality development, they make children's words and deeds have rules to follow and have a certain positive effect on cultivating children's behavior habits.
Third, pay attention to children's psychological characteristics, improve the situation and stimulate interest in learning. Children are lively and active in the learning stage. Educators in Song Dynasty noticed this characteristic of children and actively guided them to stimulate their interest in learning. Cheng Yi once said, "If you don't teach people anything, they won't be happy to learn." Zhu also advocates educating children with historical stories and allegorical poems, and developing entertainment activities such as "singing and dancing" to stimulate children's fun and increase their awareness of learning, so as to achieve the realm of "learning to be an excellent official and turning it into a useful person", which is fully reflected in his children's textbook "Primary School". In the book, he compiled many aphorisms, stories and exhortations of "ancient sages and sages" to stimulate children's interest in learning. At the same time, according to the characteristics of children's strong memory and weak understanding, it is emphasized to be familiar with the learning content. These experiences deserve our attention.
Chi Xiaofang, a doctoral student of Professor Li from the Institute of Ancient Books of East China Normal University, wrote a doctoral thesis on Primary Education in Ming Dynasty in May 1993, which was well received by experts and scholars and was awarded a doctorate. This doctoral thesis of more than 200,000 words makes a comprehensive, in-depth and systematic historical investigation on the development, function, curriculum, teaching materials, teaching methods, teachers, students and management of Mongolian studies in the Ming Dynasty. It can be said that this doctoral thesis is a comprehensive and special study of Mongolian studies in the Ming Dynasty.
Chi Xiaofang believes that the practice of Mongolian education in Ming Dynasty occupies an important position in the history of the development of ancient Mongolian education in China. On the one hand, as a primary education institution, the Enlightenment developed rapidly, surpassing all previous dynasties. On the other hand, based on the discussion of the theory of enlightenment education, a considerable number of primary school rules were produced in the Ming Dynasty. These learning rules not only played a direct role in promoting the practice of Mongolian education in Ming Dynasty at that time, but also had a considerable impact on Mongolian education in Qing Dynasty and even modern primary education.
The practice forms of Mongolian education in Ming Dynasty are various, including sociology, self-study study, private school, social study, primary school, rural study, martial arts, family school, Mongolian academy and so on.
The development of Mongolian studies in Ming Dynasty was mainly influenced by politics, economy, academics and Mongolian education itself. Politically, the * * * policy of the central government of the Ming Dynasty played a direct role in promoting the development of Mongolian education in the Ming Dynasty, and whether officials at all levels attached importance to Mongolian education also greatly affected the rise and fall of Mongolian education. Economically, the influence of farming, the availability of funds and the decline of local economy all affect the construction of Mongolian education; However, the fact that poor families could not go to school was also quite unfavorable to the popularization of Mongolian education in the Ming Dynasty. Academically, its influence is manifested in two aspects: first, some officials as scholars founded Mongolian studies and implemented their own academic ideas, thus promoting the development of Mongolian education; Second, it deepened the discussion on the ideological theory of Mongolian education, which played a positive guiding role in the practice of Mongolian education in the Ming Dynasty. In terms of its own factors, the deviation of Mongolian educational objectives, the imperial examination system and the quality of Mongolian teachers have all had a certain impact on the development of Mongolian education.
The first Mongolian School in Ming Dynasty is a Mongolian educational institution, which determines the function of Mongolian education in Ming Dynasty. The concrete manifestations are as follows: First, it emphasizes the cultivation of children's moral character, pays attention to the training of behavior, advocates the cultivation of knowledge and skills, and pays attention to the practicality of education. Secondly, as the direct undertaker of social education, this determines the social education function of Mongolian education in Ming Dynasty. The concrete manifestations are as follows: (1) The Mongolian education policy of the Ming Dynasty took social education as one of the main tasks of Mongolian education; The popularization of the objects of enlightenment education in Ming Dynasty had a direct impetus to social education. Enlightenment education itself is also a social education place, directly facing the society. The third is as a supplement to official learning. As a supplement to Fuzhou county school, the Mongolian school in Ming Dynasty is because it has the nature of basic education, not because it is an inevitable and continuous part of the school system in Ming Dynasty.
On the whole, the curriculum of Mongolian studies in Ming Dynasty is flexible, and different educators have different designs of Mongolian studies. Its basic characteristics are: first, it shows a strong moralization tendency in course center's content; Second, it shows the characteristics of diversification in subject setting.
There are two basic types of Mongolian teaching materials in Ming Dynasty: one is behavior training or moral standard learning. Including textbooks developed from Zhu's Elementary School, textbooks composed of Xiao Jinghe and textbooks composed of sacred metaphors. The second is knowledge and skills education, including three-character classics, hundreds of surnames, thousands of words, nine-chapter arithmetic, celebrity law posts, legal poems and essays, and confrontation.
There are several ways to choose teaching materials. First, collect them from former people and make them into books. Second, the use of contemporary works or * * * laws and regulations; The third is self-compiled teaching materials.
There are roughly three types of organizational forms of Mongolian education in Ming Dynasty, namely quasi-compound teaching, separate teaching and compound teaching in large and small social schools. In the daily course arrangement, classes are arranged in the order of morning, noon and evening, and different teaching contents are arranged in each teaching time unit.
The specific teaching methods of each subject are different. In book teaching, first, it is required to limit the teaching weight and leave room; Second, step by step, step by step; Third, it requires a combination of speaking and reciting. In the teaching of etiquette class, the methods of intuitive teaching and supervision and guidance are adopted. In poetry teaching, there are three main ways: singing poetry in shifts, advocating peace and reciting poetry. There are two main teaching methods and lecture methods in the calculation course. Calligraphy class is mainly based on copying calligraphers' calligraphy practice.
In the Ming Dynasty, the teachers of Mongolian studies were basically composed of imperial academy students, Confucian scholars, Confucian scholars and retired officials. In addition to the usual moral character and knowledge, teachers are also required to master certain educational skills. Teachers are appointed by academic extension officials or local officials, recommended by villagers, and invited to work by themselves. Among them, there are two ways to appoint officials, that is, to test teachers before hiring, and to train teachers before sending them.
The teacher structure of Mongolian schools in the Ming Dynasty was generally one teacher per school, which had a certain impact on the teaching methods, curriculum development and textbook selection of Mongolian schools. There are basically three kinds of treatment for teachers, that is, exemption from chores, taking care of others, inheriting official land or giving it to social schools. Among them, the exemption of miscellaneous fees is purely official treatment.
The Ming Dynasty had specific requirements for students' age, intelligence, origin, appearance and morality, but different Mongolian schools had different specific requirements. For example, in terms of age, there are 8- 14 years old, 8- 15 years old and 6-20 years old, and the enrollment scope includes all kinds of folk children, indigenous children, children with special status, citizens' children, military children, petty officials, local officials and indigenous children.
In terms of the treatment of students receiving education, different education situations are different. As far as some students can enjoy certain treatment, the main form is free of charge. From the perspective of students' way out, top students in Mongolian studies can generally be promoted to Confucianism. But on this point, Ming * * * did not make a unified regulation. However, in the Ming Dynasty, it also appeared that the source of Confucianism should be limited to social studies, which made social studies, county schools and imperial academy in an interdependent chain. Social studies, which represented Mongolian school education, became an inevitable and continuous part of school education in imperial academy, which was of great significance to the development of traditional school education system.
The Ming Dynasty basically lasted for three months, eight months and one year. The management of students is generally manifested in behavior management and academic management. The management of students' behavior includes the establishment of merit books, the supervision of students by elders sitting in left and right schools in turn, the advice and punishment of teachers and friends, etc. In academic management, academic examination is an important form, usually held by inspectors or local officials. The funds for Mongolian studies in the Ming Dynasty mainly came from the income from field study, renting shops or collecting city taxes. Among them, renting a house or collecting city tax shows that the development of commodity economy in Ming Dynasty has certain influence on the development of Mongolian studies.
The management of Mongolian school teachers in the Ming Dynasty was basically carried out by academic extension officials or local officials, mainly to limit the scope of responsibilities of Mongolian teachers and assess their moral character and performance.
In the practice of Mongolian education in the Ming Dynasty, there is a phenomenon worthy of special attention, that is, compulsory measures were taken on the issue of children's enrollment. In the seventeenth year of Hongzhi (1504), Fuzhou County was ordered to set up a social school, and "folk children were sent to school under the age of 15" (Da Ming Hui Dian, volume 78), which represented the supreme ruler's view on Mongolian education. Because the imperial edicts of Chinese emperors have higher authority than the law, this decree in the seventeenth year of Hongzhi can be said to legally stipulate the enrollment of children educated in Mongolia. At least children's enrollment is compulsory.
"Compulsory education", also known as "compulsory education", refers to the compulsory education implemented by the state for children of different ages in accordance with the law. In the west, German Martin Luther (1483- 1546) first involved the idea of "compulsory education". In his article "The Responsibility of Sending Children to School" (written in 1530), he said: "I think the municipal authorities have the responsibility to force people to send their children to school. Undoubtedly, the authorities have the responsibility to ensure that the above-mentioned official posts and other posts are inherited so that missionaries, jurists, secretaries, priests, doctors, teachers and others will not be interrupted. Because we cannot do without these people. " (History of Foreign Education, 356 pages, People's Education Press, 1989 edition), and Weimar, Germany, was the first to implement this kind of education. 16 19 in the education law promulgated by Weimar State, it is clearly stipulated that children must go to school at the age of eight, and priests and parents of children are required to send the list of eight-year-old children to * * *. If parents violate this law, they will be forced to fulfill this obligation.
If "compulsory education" is the kind of education mentioned above, then in China, the emergence and implementation of this educational idea can be traced back to at least the Ming Dynasty. "Biography of Yang Jizong in Ming Taizu" contains: At the beginning of Chenghua, Yang Jizong was appointed as the magistrate of Jiaxing Prefecture, "Daxing Sociology, folk children were not admitted to the Jinshi at the age of eight, and their fathers and brothers were punished". In addition, in the sixteenth year (152 1), the Wei school founded a social school in Guangdong, and also advocated this suggestion: "If a father and brother break the law, they will be guilty if they don't send their children to the social workers." As administrators of school education, Yang Jizong and Xiao Wei asked parents to fulfill the obligation of sending their children to school, which is exactly in line with the basic spirit of Luther's "compulsory education". At the same time, although some of its orders are not national laws, they can be called "local regulations". Compared with the development of compulsory education in the west, Chi Xiaofang's doctoral thesis holds that compulsory enrollment in Mongolian education practice in Ming Dynasty was actually the earliest form of compulsory education.
Chi Xiaofang pointed out that the practice of Mongolian education in Ming Dynasty played a great role in the emergence of modern three-level academic system by comparing the three educational system reforms with the three political education movements in modern times. It is believed that the formation of a new educational system is always based on its own development tradition, and the success of educational reform depends to some extent on how much cultural and psychological preparation traditional education has provided for it. In the concrete educational practice, the enlightenment of Ming Dynasty provided many useful experiences for later generations in curriculum, teaching materials, teaching methods and management, and its influence should not be underestimated.
It is very important to study the dating of Mongolian studies. If we conduct in-depth and detailed thematic studies on important ancient dynasties like Chi Xiaofang, then a higher-level comprehensive study on the basis of thematic studies will enrich its content and make it possible to conduct a deeper, more scientific and more realistic study and summary of the development history of Mongolian studies.