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Instructional design can be divided into different levels and stages. From a macro and long-term perspective, instructional design can refer to the design of a group of topics or a course, or even the design of a complete teaching system. This design can be carried out by the teachers' group organized by the school or by the textbook writing Committee. From the microscopic level, in a short time, it refers to the design and preparation made by teachers for a class or a single teaching content before teaching activities. This is the classroom teaching design that teachers are familiar with. From the perspective of teachers' extensive use, instructional design can be defined as the process of determining the appropriate teaching starting point and ending point according to the teaching object and teaching content, arranging the teaching elements in an orderly and optimized way, and forming a teaching plan. Determining teaching objectives, implementing teaching activities, and measuring and evaluating teaching effects are three main links closely linked in the teaching process. Among them, the determination of teaching objectives is the most important and key link in teaching implementation. On the one hand, it plays an important role in guiding, encouraging and testing teaching activities, on the other hand, it is also an important basis and index for evaluating teaching effect. Therefore, it is necessary and primary to analyze and design teaching objectives. First, the psychological theoretical basis of teaching goal design Teaching goal design is an important content of teaching design. Determining appropriate and good teaching objectives is one of the most important tasks in teaching design. The classification theory and technology of teaching objectives put forward by teaching psychologists at home and abroad provide a theoretical basis for us to comprehensively and correctly understand, scientifically analyze and design teaching objectives, and lay an operational technical foundation. (1) Introduction to the theory of classification of teaching objectives Among many theories of classification of teaching objectives, the most representative theories are Bloom's classification system of teaching objectives and Gagne's classification system of learning results. 1. Bloom's classification system of teaching objectives American psychologists, represented by Bloom, put forward a famous classification system of educational objectives in the 1950s, which divided teaching objectives into three major areas: cognition, emotion and psychological sports (or motor skills), and the objectives in each area were divided into several levels from low to high. (1) Classification of teaching objectives in cognitive field. Bloom divides the teaching objectives in the cognitive field into six levels from low to high: cognition, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Among them, except the first level of "knowledge", the other five levels belong to the category of advanced intellectual skills. Intellectual skills is different from knowledge. It is a way to deal with knowledge, which requires learners to organize knowledge in their thinking. Knowledge is the simplest goal in the field of cognition, which means being able to remember the information obtained. This goal emphasizes the psychological characteristics of memory, the characteristics of materials themselves and the process of retelling, processing and extracting materials. For example, the definition of reciting concepts or the principle of retelling. Understanding is the simplest understanding, which mainly refers to the understanding of the information obtained. For example, you can describe the definition or principle of a concept in your own words. Application refers to the practical application of the concepts and principles learned in specific specific situations. For example, using a certain principle to solve mathematical problems. Analysis refers to the decomposition of the conveyed information into several elements or components, and to clarify the relationship and relative structure of each element. For example, we can analyze several meanings contained in a concept or the conditions to be satisfied by a mathematical principle. Synthesis refers to the ability to combine various elements and parts into a whole to form a new form and structure. It needs to operate both known elements and parts and unknown elements and parts. It mainly includes the ability to create new products, integrate various viewpoints to form new theories, go beyond the existing level of understanding, put forward new ideas and creatively exchange results. Evaluation refers to the ability to judge the value of materials or methods according to specific purposes, that is, to make qualitative or quantitative judgments on the degree to which materials or methods meet the standards. It is at the highest level of cognitive skills and contains all the elements of the above five abilities. The significance of the classification of cognitive goals is not only to provide a basis for teachers to determine teaching goals and evaluate teaching quality, but also to remind us that when designing teaching goals or evaluating teaching, we should not only stay at the level of imparting or asking for "knowing", but also pay attention to cultivating students' intellectual skills. The cultivation of students' intellectual skills should not only be limited to the level of knowledge, but also focus on the cultivation of innovative ability and judgment ability. Teachers should pay attention to the following points when determining the teaching objectives according to CET-6 teaching: ① CET-6 teaching can not be achieved in one class, but through carefully organizing a series of classroom teaching; ② Due to the characteristics of the subject and the age of the students, some teaching contents only need to reach a certain level. For example, primary school students' computer courses usually only require them to operate computers and reach the level of application. (2) The classification of teaching objectives in the emotional field. Emotion is a psychological response to external stimuli, such as likes and dislikes. Individuals' emotions will affect their behavior choices. Emotional teaching is one of the important goals of teaching. D.R.Krathwool put forward the classification of affective teaching objectives in 1964, which is divided into five levels according to the internalization degree of values, and each level is composed of continuous subclasses. The details are as follows. "Acceptance and attention" means willingness to accept or pay attention to an event or activity. It consists of three consecutive subclasses: consciousness, willingness to accept and control attention or selective attention, starting with consciousness and ending with controlled attention or selective attention. In this goal, the teacher's task is to start from the beginning, grasp the students' attention, guide them to the terminal, and present the excitement that students like. "Reaction" means willingness to participate or active participation. It consists of three sub-categories: acquiescent response (such as obedience or obedience), willing response (approval, approval or voluntary response) and satisfied response. In this goal, the teacher's task is to make students feel satisfied and produce a happy emotional response, that is, to achieve a certain sense of satisfaction. "Attaching importance" refers to linking a special object, phenomenon or behavior with a certain value standard, guiding one's behavior with this standard, and accepting, pursuing and even dedicating something. Value evaluation includes acceptance, preference and value belief. To reach the highest level of teaching-faith, teachers should convince students that what they have learned is correct and firmly believe that they can succeed through their own efforts. "Organization of values" is to organize values into a system, compare various values, determine the relationship and relative importance of various values, accept the values you think are important, and form a personal value system. For example, deal with collective affairs first, and then consider personal gains and losses; Finish the homework assigned by the teacher before playing. This level includes the conceptualization of value (for example, trying to identify the characteristics of the artistic objects it appreciates) and the organization of the value system. The organization of value system may produce new value or higher level value complex. "Individuality of value or value system" means that values and value system form a stable value system with personal characteristics. His personal behavior is consistent, general and predictable. If you study hard, keep good personal study habits. This level includes two subcategories: generalized centripetal and individualization. Because it is difficult to explain the affective teaching objectives by behavior changes, unlike the classification of cognitive teaching objectives, there are obvious and specific explicit indicators, which brings some difficulties to objective observation and measurement. Crasworth's classification provides us with the development level of emotional teaching objectives, and reveals that emotional teaching is a process of internalizing values and eventually forming a stable value system. The emotional development continuum composed of its subclasses describes the subtle development and changes of emotion in the teaching process in detail, which provides a reference for us to explore the teaching objectives of emotion. At the same time, the classification also enlightens us: ① Emotion is a process of internalizing the value standard, and the external requirement standard needs to go through the process of accepting, responding and recognizing its value; (2) Emotion is not unspeakable and unpredictable, and the continuous description of emotional development by this classification provides a direction and way for teachers to complete the task of emotional teaching; ③ Emotional teaching is one of the important tasks of teaching in all subjects, and all subjects should attach importance to the cultivation of corresponding emotions. Only when learners participate in learning with positive emotions, "I want to learn" will replace "I want to learn". Crasworth's classification goal of emotional teaching reveals the whole process of emotional development and the highest teaching goal, but like the cognitive teaching goal, it does not mean that all students of different teaching contents or different ages have to complete the whole process and reach the end point. Therefore, this requires teachers to flexibly determine and describe the corresponding emotional teaching objectives according to the subject content and the age characteristics of students. (3) Classification of teaching objectives in the field of motor skills. With regard to the classification of sports skills, Simpson (197 1), Harrow (1972) and R.J.Kibler appeared successively. At present, there is no consistent and widely recognized theoretical framework. But in comparison, Simpson's classification is widely used. Let's briefly discuss Simpson's classification. "Perception" refers to understanding the knowledge, nature and function related to a certain motor skill. "Orientation" refers to the preparation for activities, including psychological orientation, physiological orientation and emotional preparation. "Guided reaction" refers to showing relevant actions and behaviors under the guidance or instruction of teachers. For example, practice under the guidance of the presenter until the correct action is formed, and start the computer according to the instructions or demonstrations. "Mechanized action" means that the learner's reaction has become a habit and the action is correct. For example, you can start the computer without a teacher's demonstration or reading instructions. "Complex explicit reaction" means that you can show a full set of sports skills with the least time and energy, and you can be coherent and skilled in one go. For example, skillfully turn on the computer according to the prescribed procedures. "Adaptation" refers to a highly developed skill level. Students can modify their action patterns to adapt to special devices or meet the needs of specific situations. For example, if the computer model changes and the button position changes, the computer can still be started according to the specified program. "Innovation" refers to creating new action patterns to adapt to specific situations, emphasizing creativity based on highly developed skills. For example, practice calligraphy to a considerable height, create a unique style, and achieve the realm of "everyone has his own body." This goal classification describes the development process of motor skills from low level to high level, which is of guiding significance to the teaching goal design of physical education class, art class, tool operation skill class, experiment class in natural science and writing skill class in Chinese teaching. On the basis of Bloom's classification system of teaching objectives, Chinese teaching psychology researchers put forward their own classification of teaching objectives: (1) The teaching objectives in the cognitive field are memory, understanding, application and synthesis in middle school and memory, understanding and application in primary school; (2) According to the idea of combining behavior classification with content classification, the teaching goal of emotional field in primary and secondary schools is acceptance, reaction, hobby and personalization; (3) The goal in the field of motor skills is perception, stereotype, proficiency and automation in primary and secondary schools. (4) The goal classification of interpersonal skills. A.J.Romiszwski, a contemporary instructional design expert, put forward the goal of interpersonal skills after the three teaching goals of cognition, emotion and skills. In the early 1980s, Romiszowski proposed that interpersonal skills, like cognitive skills, psychological action skills and reaction skills, must occupy an important position in school teaching. This kind of goal involves developing the ability to communicate effectively with others and deal with personnel relations, including consulting, management, discussion, cooperation and sales skills. The classification of this goal is not introduced in detail here. 2. Gagne's goal classification system of learning achievement Gagne believes in his book Conditions of Learning that there are five types of students' learning achievements, namely, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. However, these five results belong to the category of ability, which cannot be directly observed, and can only be inferred from their behavior when using this ability to complete learning tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate clear behavioral goals. Therefore, Gagne set nine teaching goals. The details are as follows. "The goal of discriminating learning" refers to discriminating various objective scenes or physical characteristics, involving all sensory aspects such as hearing, vision, touch and smell. But this is not a comprehensive description of the situation. "The goal of concrete concept learning" refers to the learning goal based on distinguishing learning goals, which can determine one or more examples of a certain kind of things. "Defining the goal of concept learning" means that students can classify things or events through certain rules. This law expresses the relationship between the essence and function of a concept. "The goal of rule-based learning" means that students can describe and transform concepts and propositions in situations according to certain requirements. "The goal of problem-solving learning" means that learners can use rules and concepts to solve problems in new situations and acquire more advanced rules and concepts in the process. "The goal of verbal information learning" means that learners can remember verbal information composed of meaningful propositions, which is embodied in being able to repeat and process these propositions. "The goal of cognitive strategy learning" means that learners can effectively adjust and control their own cognitive process. "The goal of motor skill learning" means that learners have reached a proficient state when completing operations and actions, which can be described and measured by the characteristics of the execution speed, accuracy, strength or continuity of operations or actions. "The goal of attitude learning" means that learners have formed an internal preparation or reaction tendency to make choices about behavior. Among the goals listed above, the learning of discrimination, specific concepts, definition concepts, rules and problem solving belongs to the learning goals of wisdom skills. Generally speaking, Bloom and Gagne's classification of teaching objectives has been proved to be very appropriate in practice and should be paid full attention to in teaching design. But we can't ignore the differences in teaching situations and simply apply their theories mechanically. When we analyze and determine the teaching objectives of specific teaching situations, we should reflect its uniqueness. Due to the differences in subject characteristics and students' age characteristics, different teaching situations require different levels of teaching activities. Moreover, not all students and all teaching contents must reach the highest level in the teaching target system. Second, the psychological technology of teaching goal design (I) Teaching goal analysis Generally speaking, goal analysis usually starts with asking questions, then collects all kinds of information with the goal of solving problems, and finally formulates the goal system of teaching activities on the basis of analyzing these information. Specifically, the target analysis process can be summarized as six steps. (1) Understand the problem and determine the purpose. Understand the gap between actual teaching activities and expectations, clarify the problems in teaching activities, and thus determine the purpose of teaching design. This is not only the basis of teaching goal design, but also the starting point of the whole teaching design work. Usually, instructional designers can find problems through surveys and interviews. For example, through interviews with middle school principals and teachers, we can understand the problems existing in middle school teaching and determine the purpose of teaching design. (2) establish goals. Around a certain goal, according to the goal classification system of Bloom or Gagne, a series of specific teaching goals are established. (3) Refine the target. Select and arrange detailed goals according to certain standards (usually the importance of goals to achieve goals), distinguish main goals, core goals and secondary goals, support goals, and clarify their relationships. (4) Refine the target again. Refine the goal again to ensure the value of the goal. This mainly starts from two aspects: on the one hand, the established goal is compared with the actual teaching activities to determine the gap between them, thus confirming the necessity and feasibility of the goal; On the other hand, compare the determined goals with the previously determined teaching design goals, and determine the correlation between them, so as to ensure that each goal is really designed around a certain purpose. (5) Rearrange the goals. Finally, arrange the goal and form the teaching design goal system. (II) Expression of Teaching Objectives How to scientifically express teaching objectives and ensure that the formulated teaching objectives are clear, specific and effective is an important technical problem that should be solved in the design of teaching objectives. In order to solve this problem, the behavioral view, cognitive view and the presentation methods and techniques combining these two views are mainly formed. 1. is expressed in observable behavioral terms. 1962, B.F.Mager, a famous American psychologist, published a book "Preparing Teaching Objectives", which systematically discussed the theory and method of expressing teaching objectives in behavioral terms. Ma Jie believes that behavioral goals refer to the goals stated in observable and measurable behaviors, which should be able to explain "what students can do to prove their achievements, and how teachers know what students can do". He also pointed out that a good behavior goal should include the expression of behavior, the expression of behavior conditions and the expression of behavior standards. Later, some scholars think it is necessary to increase the expression of teaching objects. Accordingly, instructional designers should clearly state the following four contents when determining the behavioral goals of teaching. (1) The expression of the teaching object refers to who the learner is. Learners are the core of instructional design, and learning activities will only take place when learners actively process their minds and train their skills. Therefore, when designing teaching objectives and determining teaching behavior objectives, we must first make clear the teaching objects. For example, the teaching object is the first-grade primary school students. (2) the expression of behavior, that is, what students can do after teaching. The basic expression method is to use a verb-object structure phrase, where the verb indicates the type of learning and the object indicates the content of learning. If you can add, subtract, multiply and Divison, you can list three to five prime numbers and composite numbers. (3) the expression of conditions, that is, under what circumstances the learner acts. The expression of behavior occurrence conditions also shows under what conditions the teaching activities are evaluated. For example, when stating the teaching goal of "requiring learners to distinguish various birds", it is necessary to indicate "from black and white pictures or from color pictures"; When stating the teaching goal of "being able to operate a computer", we must specify the behavioral conditions of "operating under the guidance or instruction of a teacher or operating independently". Generally speaking, the conditions of behavior include the following factors: ① environmental factors (space, light, temperature, climate, indoor or outdoor, quiet or noise, etc. ); ② Human factors (individually and collectively in groups, under the guidance of teachers, etc.). ); ③ Equipment factors (tools, equipment, drawings, manuals, calculators, etc.). ); ④ Information factors (materials, textbooks, notes, charts, dictionaries, etc.). ); ⑤ Time factors (speed, time limit, etc.). ); ⑥ Factors of problem clarity (what stimuli are provided to cause behavior). (4) The expression of behavior standard, that is, the minimum requirements for the behavior of learning results, so that the teaching objectives have measurable characteristics. Behavior standards are usually standards that stipulate proficiency, accuracy, accuracy, integrity, Excellence, time limit, etc. Therefore, their statements are often related to questions such as "to what extent is it accurate", "at least a few percent is correct" and "how long will it be completed". Example of asking questions about elements of teaching objectives 1. Teaching object 2. Students' behavior. Conditions of behavior. What is the minimum standard for students to pass their homework? Do what? Under what conditions? How's it going? Under the guidance of teachers, the correct rate of fifth-grade students completing basic computer operations is not less than 80%. In the design of teaching objectives, behavior expression is the most basic part and cannot be lacking. The conditions and standards of behavior can be omitted according to the teaching object or content. Describing teaching objectives by behavior overcomes the shortcomings of traditional teaching objectives, which are vague and difficult to operate and evaluate, and is conducive to achieving the guiding function, incentive function and detection function of the objectives. However, because it only emphasizes the behavior of learning results and ignores the changes of learners' cognition and emotions, it may make teaching activities appear mechanical and inflexible, and it is difficult to achieve the real teaching purpose, and many psychological processes cannot be behaviorized. However, if the teaching objectives are expressed in terms that express learners' internal cognition and emotional changes, it is easy to be vague. In order to solve this contradiction, some scholars put forward the idea of combining internal process with explicit behavior to describe teaching objectives. 2. The combination of internal process and explicit behavior to state the teaching goal (N.E.Gronlund) In 1978, the concept of combining internal and external teaching goals was put forward, and it was thought that the general teaching goal could be stated by describing the internal process first, and then the observable behavior was taken as an example to make this goal concrete. Grandlund's idea of combining inside and outside not only avoids the abstraction and fuzziness of cognitive goals or emotional goals, but also prevents the mechanization and superficiality of behavioral goals to a certain extent, so it has been recognized by many psychologists and instructional designers. Such as "understanding the meaning of addition algorithm", which is a general expression of teaching objectives. However, "understanding" is an internal process, which is difficult to observe and measure directly, so it is further explained with behavioral examples that can prove the level of "understanding", such as "telling the law of addition in your own words" and "listing 2~3 examples of addition". In short, the stated teaching objectives must meet the following requirements: (1) The teaching objectives state the students' learning results, not what the teachers have done; (2) The statement of teaching objectives should be clear and specific, observable and measurable, and try to avoid using vague and unrealistic language to state objectives; (3) The statement of teaching objectives should reflect the hierarchy of learning results, and the teaching objectives in the cognitive field should generally reflect three levels: memory, understanding and application. (3) The presentation of teaching objectives should ensure that teaching objectives can effectively play a guiding role in teaching activities. It is not enough to express the teaching objectives scientifically, but also to design them carefully and integrate them into the teaching activities properly. In the practice of teaching by objectives, Chinese teachers have also summed up some laws of the relationship between the presentation of teaching objectives and the effectiveness of teaching objectives: (1) The presentation of objectives should be natural; (2) Decentralized display targets are better than centralized display targets; (3) The combination of exhibition goal and rebate goal (rebate goal at the end of teaching content) is better; (4) There should not be too many goals in each class, and key goals and difficult goals should be set; (5) The proposed goal should not be too detailed, otherwise the teaching will be mechanical and inflexible, which will limit students' thinking; (6) Taking into account the effective understanding of the goals by the students in the lower grades of primary school, the goals are not displayed or only displayed in disguised form; (7) For jumping, unfamiliar and arduous content, it is best to show the teaching objectives in the last link of the classroom; (8) Senior self-study oriented classes had better show their goals before class, so as to play the role of organizational strategy; (9) Emotional goals don't have to be displayed in the classroom, but they must occupy a place in the design, so that in the classroom teaching, teachers can infiltrate the emotional teaching content in a planned way and realize the emotional teaching goals without losing time.