(1) Oracle Bone Inscriptions.
The history of China's calligraphy can be traced back to the Neolithic Age 6000 years ago. In Yangshao cultural sites in Shaanxi, Henan and Shandong, we can see its earliest expression from various patterns and symbols carved on the surface of painted pottery. However, according to the analysis of existing data, the pattern symbols on these cultural relics did not have the elements of calligraphy before the Shang Dynasty. Only in Oracle Bone Inscriptions and Shang Dynasty, when the three elements of writing, calligraphy and composition were all available, could it be called calligraphy worthy of the name. Oracle Bone Inscriptions is carved on tortoise shells, animal bones and human bones, mostly through the process of writing first and then carving. From the perspective of calligraphy, Oracle Bone Inscriptions can be roughly divided into two categories: one is the thick and vigorous strokes; A stroke is thin and straight. Because Oracle Bone Inscriptions was carved on the bone nail with a knife, the carving knife was blunt and sharp, and the bone was soft and hard, so the thickness of the carved strokes was different, and so was Fiona Fang. Moreover, the strokes carved by the knife are mostly square folds, and the intersections often peel off seriously. This formed the distinctive features of Oracle Bone Inscriptions, and also provided valuable experience for later calligraphy seal cutting with a pen and a knife. Oracle Bone Inscriptions varies in size, but it is balanced, symmetrical, stable and natural. As far as composition is concerned, although the size and shape of Oracle bones are different, each paragraph of text varies from material to material, and the layout is reasonable, showing a quaint taste. What is particularly precious is that the Yin people's handwriting found in the site is written in ink on jade, pottery fragments and animal bones, which is rich and round, shaped like a little paint, naturally covering the front; Turn around and hold the pen tip thin, such as horizontal needle and hanging needle. All these have provided many beneficial inspirations for the calligraphy reform of later generations.
② inscriptions on bronze
Bronze inscriptions used in the early Zhou Dynasty are similar in strokes and structure to Oracle inscriptions in Yin ruins. After Wang Zhao, the inscriptions on bronze in the Western Zhou Dynasty became more and more mature. Representative works include Wang Zhao's Zong Zhou Zhong and Gong Wang's wallboard. At this time, the main features of the inscriptions on bronze inscriptions are: the strokes are gradually rounded from tadpole tail, and the strokes are mostly round, which is more straight, tight, stable and regular than the inscriptions on bronze inscriptions in the early Zhou Dynasty; In composition, I began to pay attention to vertical and horizontal spacing and line spacing. The inscriptions with boundary grids are more rigorous, while those with larger spacing and row spacing are very sparse and open.
③ "The first rule of calligraphers"
Due to the social changes and turbulence during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, great changes have taken place in the ancient seal script (that is, bronze inscriptions) in China. Over the past 500 years, the calligraphy of eastern countries such as Lu, Qi, Qi and Zheng has largely inherited the mature characteristics of Western Zhou calligraphy. The most outstanding work of Da Zhuan in the Western Zhou Dynasty is Shi Guwen, a Qin engraving. This is the earliest and most typical stone inscription in China, which was discovered in the early Tang Dynasty. 10 drum stone, vigorous and powerful, simple and natural; Draw a circle on the square with a pen; This knot becomes a square; The rules are grand and broad; Words are larger than one inch, but balanced; The whole body image is outstanding, like the stars scattered in the autumn night. Therefore, it has been highly respected and cherished by all generations, and it is known as "the first criterion of calligraphers" in China.
2. The breakthrough of calligraphy in Qin, Han and Six Dynasties to Six Books.
(1) The appearance of seal script.
Xiao Zhuan was born out of inscriptions on bronze and Da Zhuan. Compared with Da Zhuan, Xiao Zhuan's font is simpler, the font is neat, the strokes are rounded and the structure is unified, which is undoubtedly a great progress of Chinese characters. Parallel to Xiaozhuan, there are Dazhuan, Guli and their variants. The representative traces of seal script that can be seen now are some stone carvings. It's just that the stone carvings are peeling off badly, and there are few original works left. Fortunately, there are imitations and rubbings left. The words on Yangling's tiger charm are rigorous and broad, with bones and flesh. Among the calligraphy relics in the Qin Dynasty, the most precious one is 1 105, which was unearthed from the Qin cemetery in Yunmeng Crouching Tiger Land, Hubei Province. These are immature official scripts, which are combined with the bronze and tiger symbols of Yangling Mausoleum. They are good at their own mistakes, and the past is new. Qin also collected, arranged and popularized official script, making it an auxiliary character of Xiao Zhuan, which was widely used, but it was far less important than Xiao Zhuan. Therefore, the Qin dynasty used seal script to shine in history, and official script flourished in the Han dynasty.
② the formation of official script
The early Han dynasty still followed the calligraphy tradition of Qin dynasty. Among the stone carvings and brick documents handed down from the Western Han Dynasty, some calligraphy is as exquisite as the stone carvings and tiger seals of the Qin Dynasty. However, in some relics (inscriptions on bronze wares in Shanglin cellar), there is a square-folded brush track, which strongly shows the trend of transition to Hanshu and Han Li. Since then, the official script has developed continuously and finally became the official standard text with strict laws and regulations. During these 400 years, the official change of official script is a great revolution in the history of China calligraphy. Structurally, Lishu broke through the original intention of "Liushu" to create Chinese characters, imagining radicals, confusing variant characters, differentiating homographs and strong differentiation, which caused great changes in the form of Chinese characters. What best embodies the characteristics of standard official script are waves and strokes. This kind of stroke is flat, curved and short when it appears on the left side of the word, because it is not easy to draw in the opposite direction. On the right side of the word, it forms a stroke called Wei Yan. Because the standard official script is written in a solemn and neat way, and with the wonderful use of various brushwork hidden by Fiona Fang, the font power is quite vivid. Representative works include Jing, Bei, Yi Ying Bei, Hua Shan Bei, Kong and so on. These inscriptions represent the highest level in Han Li.
(3) "The best running script in the world"
Wei and Jin Dynasties are the times when China's calligraphy completed its evolution. Although official script and even seal script are still in use, what is more important is the rapid development of authentic, cursive and running scripts at this time. Among Analogy Classics in the First Year of Wei Ganlu (AD 256), Collection of Buddhist Scriptures in the Sixth Year of Yuan Kang in the Western Jin Dynasty (AD 296) and Records of the Three Kingdoms Written by Jin People Unearthed in Xinjiang, the only official script that best embodies the standard official script is Zhang. However, the left-handed strokes became the "left hand" of regular script, and the "left hand" pen was gradually replaced by the "oblique hook" of regular script. Zhong You, a calligrapher of the Wei Dynasty in the Three Kingdoms, absorbed nutrition from the people and concentrated on the straight, simple and easy writing style that broke through the rules of official script. He replaced the silkworm head and silkworm tail with the horizontal and horizontal strokes of the original script, and modified the original strokes with reference to the circles of seal script and cursive script, so that the original script was mature and finalized, reaching a perfect realm. His regular script is regarded as a model of later generations, and his work He Jiebiao is known as the "ancestor of official script". Wang Xizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty was also a masterpiece created by his contemporaries in the previous generation, which raised his running script and cursive script to the highest stage. His running script and cursive script are regarded as models in all previous dynasties, and his Preface to Lanting is called the best running script in the world. Since then, although real books (such as Weibei) and various calligraphy styles and cursive scripts have changed, they have basically not exceeded the laws of Wei and Jin Dynasties.
④ The formation of Wei Ti.
There were many calligraphers in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, but since the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the calligraphy in the Southern Dynasties was almost completely influenced by the calligraphy style of the "two kings". The most influential monk was Wang Xizhi's seventh Sun Zhiyong, who was diligent in calligraphy. Because he didn't go downstairs for many years, his ink pen was full of twists and turns, implicit and rhythmic, and was well received by all previous dynasties. Due to the importance attached by the Northern Dynasties to grotto statues, a large number of calligraphers wrote and carved statues and inscriptions. Their regular script inherited "Zhong Wang" and developed. The most outstanding thing is that Fang Bi wrote Wei Ti with a pen, which formed a unique style and was highly praised by later generations.
3. The prosperous calligraphy world-Tang and Song calligraphy
Tang Wenhua is profound and talented. The Tang Dynasty broke through the calligraphy of the Six Dynasties and reached an unprecedented peak. Li Shimin, Emperor Taizong, Zong Rui, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, Su Zong, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, Dou Hou and Wuhou all attached importance to calligraphy. Even the Japanese calligraphy of Shoto Kutaishi, Emperor Shengwu and Empress Guangming was deeply influenced by the calligraphy of the Tang Dynasty. In the early Tang Dynasty, there were four great calligraphers, who were called "Yu (south of the city), Ou (), Chu (Sui Liang) and Xue (Ji)". Among them, Yu Shinan inherited the wisdom and courage of the monk, inherited the tradition of "two kings", and used the pen to be soft outside and rigid inside. Ou Yangxun also studied under the "two kings", and his brushwork was bold and sharp. He saw danger in peacetime and was unique, which was called European style and had a great influence on later generations. Chu Suiliang's calligraphy is different after "Two Kings", "Ou" and "Yu". Learn to remember the calligraphy of Yu and Chu, and be diligent in copying. Sometimes he said, "Buy Chu to learn without losing its virtue." It can be seen that there are many Chu methods in his calligraphy. In addition, there is Zhang Xu, who is proficient in model writing, cursive script is the most famous, unique and continuous, and novel in style. Huai Su, who is famous for "Weeds", likes drinking and writing, and flies around like a whirlwind. He inherits Zhang Xu's style; Yan Zhenqing, in block letters, is dignified and majestic, and his running script is vigorous and vigorous, and the ancient law is one of the changes.
There were four great masters in Song Dynasty: Su Shi, Huang Tingjian, Mi Fei and Cai Xiang. Su Shi, one of the eight masters in Tang and Song Dynasties, can write poems, draw books and write lyrics. He is bold and unconstrained, good at regular script, full of ups and downs with his pen, and has a feeling of innocence. He is the author of Huangzhou Cold Food Poetry Post, Qianchibi Fu, Dongting Spring Poetry and Alnus cremastogyne. Huang Ting is good at writing poems, being good at grass, taking advantage of border risks to create momentum and having a unique style. Mi Fei is good at poetry, calligraphy and cursive script, thanks to Wang Xianzhi. His works include Shu Su Tie, Yuan Ritie, Tiaoxi Poem, Landscape Loutai Poem and so on. Cai Xiang learned from "beauty" and "gold digger". His regular script is calm, his running script is gentle and charming, and his cursive script uses the method of flying white, which also has its own characteristics. Song Huizong Evonne is also good at calligraphy. His real calligraphy is like Chu Suiliang and Xue Yao, and he writes thinner. He used Huang Tingjian's regular script to stretch his bones and muscles, calling himself a "thin gold book".
4. Inheritance and innovation-Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Calligraphers in Yuan Dynasty recognized Zhao Mengfu as the main altar. He wrote many inscriptions, which were round and beautiful, and were called "Zhao Ti". Gong Zheng, Xing Hang, cursive script, especially cursive script. He is good at writing books by hanging his wrist. His pen is healthy, his books are round and simple, and his brushwork is round and smooth. Yeluchucai's calligraphy is vigorous, stuffy, straightforward, natural, tall and straight, vigorous and bold, and colorful. Calligraphers in Ming Dynasty are famous for inheriting the Yuan Dynasty and catching up with the Jin and Tang Dynasties: Zhu Yunming, whose books are brilliant and naive; Dong Qichang, who claimed to learn from the dryness rate of ancient books, was easy to get beauty and sparse in branches. More creative people are Xu Wei, Huang Daozhou, Ni, etc. They have created "extraordinary ups and downs", "innovative ideas" and "unique style" calligraphy treasures, which are particularly valuable.
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Fu Shan, Shi Tao, Zhu Da, etc. Among the rare people, he created a unique calligraphy work. In the early years of Qing Dynasty, there were many famous artists. In the middle of Qing Dynasty, Zheng Xie and Jin Nong were two people who could create a new world under the cover of iron and blood. They are one of the eight eccentrics in Yangzhou. Zheng Xie's calligraphy is integrated with official script, calling itself "six-and-a-half calligraphy method". He integrates truth, grass, official script and seal script, mainly official script. Freehand brushwork, word for word, bold and original, wonderful. Jin Nong's official script is concise, with thick horizontal painting, short vertical painting and oblique body; Regular script is written by Fang Bi, with thick strokes, tight structure and self-created style, numbered "Lacquer Book". Famous calligraphers include Deng, Yi Bingshou, Chen Hongshou and Bao. There are so many talented people that it is hard to count, leaving people with rich calligraphy art treasures and valuable calligraphy creation experience. seal cutting
1. The emergence and development of seals
Three things similar to seals were found in the cultural relics unearthed in Yin Ruins. Although their practical use is uncertain, their good calligraphy and seal cutting skills are obvious at a glance. The "Festival of Goods Bribery and Seal" mentioned in Zhou Li illustrates the role of seal in winning trust from the perspective of economic life. Therefore, we can say that the seal was produced at the latest in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period.
(1) the ancient seal of Qin Zhou.
The ancient seal is the oldest seal recently discovered. According to textual research, it appeared in the Warring States period. The vast majority of ancient cockroaches are private cockroaches, that is, they are not used by the government, but only used as tokens for private exchanges. The calligraphy style of the ancient seal is the big seal, or "seal script", which was popular in various countries during the Warring States Period, similar to the inscription on the Yi wares in Zhong Ding at that time. Printing materials are mostly copper, silver, jade and stone. A method of printing, casting or carving. At that time, there were no names used by later generations, such as "seal" and "chapter". Whether official, private, honorable or humble, it is called "Fu". At that time, the seal was smaller than the descendants, not more than one square inch. The official seal is vigorous and straight, with natural and reasonable layout and no affectation; The small seal is beautiful, neat and comfortable. There are both Zhu and Zhu Wen, and Zhu Wen is wide and thin, but there are many boundaries, and the horizontal and vertical boundaries in the middle are Tian, Tian and Tian. There are various printing shapes, either square or round, or bead-shaped-a printing body, each with square, round, triangular and other shapes.
In the Qin Dynasty, Qin Shihuang unified the chaotic characters of the six countries and formulated the Qin Zhuan, also known as "Xiao Zhuan". Qin Zhuan used the word Xiao Zhuan. At the same time, it is stipulated that only the seal of the emperor can be called a seal, and all subjects are called "seals". The word "seal" appeared in seals and was first seen in the Qin Dynasty. Most of the ancient seals in the Warring States period came from casting, but in the Qin Dynasty, they were mostly block printing and mostly written in white. The layout is mostly square. Tian Zige distributes the printed words evenly on the printed surface, and the composition shows a reasonable arrangement between the virtual and the real and the density. There is also a low-level official seal called "semi-pass seal", which is half of a square official seal and rectangular. It is natural to use a Japanese-style frame to split the seal in two, or to distribute it evenly, or to distribute the area according to the number of calligraphy and painting.
(2) seals of the Han, Wei and Six Dynasties
Han Dynasty is a period of unprecedented development of seal art in China. The Chinese and Indian calligraphy styles are based on Qin Zhuan, but the seal cutting methods have obviously changed. The structure is mellow, solemn and beautiful, and the layout is just and steady, concise and lively. Chinese and Indian are mostly made of copper, and there are also printing materials such as silver. The seal is mainly white, but Zhu Wen was only seen after Wei and Jin dynasties, and most of them did not use the common border of the previous seal. Compared with the previous generation, the types of printing in China are more abundant, with different formats, such as multi-sided printing, overlapping printing, mother printing, tape printing, hook printing, palindrome printing, Bai Zhu alternating printing, and new types, such as table printing, courtier printing, simplified book printing, auspicious printing, pattern name printing, static shape printing, general printing and giant printing.
Although the seal of Wei and Jin Dynasties is not as exquisite as that of China, it has a unique style. The seal is thin and hard, and the composition is natural and casual. Some seals use a font called "hanging needle seal". The vertical pen is long and drooping, and the two ends are tapered, which looks like a hanging needle, hence the name "hanging needle seal", which is the most common in six-sided printing.
2. Seals enter the art palace
(1) gorgeous seal of the tang dynasty.
Compared with the past, there are several obvious changes in the seals of the Tang Dynasty. First, the seal began to increase; Second, the change of calligraphy style. Although seal script is still used, it is mostly folded in zigzag. This situation became more and more serious in the Song, Jin, Yuan and Ming Dynasties, and it was called "Ten-fold Prose".
This type of book is the most commonly used for official seals; Third, the print began to expand, and occasionally official script and regular script appeared; Fourth, the types of seals have increased, and there have been official seals, word seals or other seals; Fifth, the seal tends to be artistic, and the seal of words and expressions and the seal of Zhaiguan collection are weakened or no longer have the function of winning trust, which highlights the value of artistic appreciation. It was also from this time that seals began to gradually enter the field of pure art.
Since the Tang Dynasty, seal has gradually entered the cultural life of literati, becoming a symbol of power and a certificate to win trust, and has been used for painting and calligraphy collection and as a decoration of works of art. In addition, it has directly promoted seal cutting to become an independent art and has been greatly developed.
② printing
In the Song Dynasty, a new kind of seal appeared, called "Flower Seal". This kind of seal either engraves the name, or engraves the surname in regular script, and engraves the name below. Its purpose is to make people difficult to imitate. Flower seal became more and more popular in Yuan Dynasty, but most Mongolians didn't know Chinese seal, so some people completely used Mongolian instead of flower seal, which was unique.
As for the name of the seal, the seal of the Tang emperor was also called "Bao", which was also used in Song, Yuan and Qing Dynasties. In the official seal and private seal of Tang and Song Dynasties, it is also called "Ji" or "Zhu Ji". The word "official defense" is common on rectangular bronze seals in Ming Dynasty, and it can also be seen on seals in Qing Dynasty. In addition, a seal called "contract" was used on the banknotes issued in the Southern Song Dynasty and the Jin Dynasty.
3. Seal genre
① "Huizhou School"
From the middle of Ming Dynasty, folk seal cutting gradually became an independent art, which opened the most colorful page in the history of seal cutting in China.
According to legend, Wang Mian, a painter at the end of Yuan Dynasty, pioneered the use of Qingtian elastase for seal cutting. This enzyme is soft, greasy and easy to carve, which can perfectly express the artistic effect and seal cutting skills of calligraphy, thus solving the problem of carving with metals, jade, stones, teeth and horns in the past. At the same time, with the excavation and enrichment of cultural relics such as inscriptions, clocks and watches, as well as the collection and dissemination of seals, the growth of epigraphy among scholars and the prevalence of epigraphy have been promoted, thus stimulating the great enthusiasm and interest of literati in appreciating seals.
In the Ming Dynasty, Wen Peng claimed to be the originator of the history of school printing, and his disciple He Zhen founded the first school of printing-"Anhui School". Both Wen and He imitated seal script with rough knives, advocated imitating Qin and Han Dynasties, and tried to correct the shortcomings of rigidity and artificiality accumulated since Tang and Song Dynasties, which opened up the correct path for seal cutting and left a positive impact on future generations in theory and practice. Wen Peng's works are vigorous and simple, and He Zhen's style is natural and vivid. Su Xuan, Cheng Sui, Ba Weizu, Hu Tang, Wang Zhaolong, Dong Xun, Wang Sheng, etc. They are good at absorbing nutrition from the seals of Qin and Han dynasties and are full of innovative spirit; Style is dignified, simple and honest, or neat, beautiful, natural and ingenious.
② "Zhejiang School"
After Huizhou School, Ding Jing, a native of Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, sprang up in the Qing Dynasty, creating another portal. He paid attention to the eclectic advantages of Qin and Han seals, formed a simple, vigorous and simple artistic style, and created a new artistic school-"Zhejiang School". His successors include Huang Yi, Xi Gang, Jiang Ren, Chen Yuzhong, Chen Hongshou, Song Qian, Zhao Chenzhi and Hu Tang. They chased Qin and Han dynasties far away and Ding Jing near, but they formed their own school and made great achievements. On the other hand, it is vigorous, Xigang Qingjun, Jiangren Guxiu, Chen Yuzhong is neat, Chen Hongshou is vigorous and unrestrained, boundless and vigorous, Zhao is delicate and charming, and Hu Tang is vigorous and moist.
Deng is another master of seal cutting after Ding Jing. He fused the inscriptions of the Han Dynasty and the Six Dynasties into one furnace, striving to improve the artistic effect of seal script and create a rich and colorful artistic style. Later generations called him and his successors "Deng School". Wu Xizai, another member of the Deng School, studied Chinese and Hindi first, and then studied under Deng Shiru. He carved more than 10 thousand squares in his life, and his skills were profound. His style is steady, concise and relaxed, and he is good at playing chess with Deng, so he is called "Deng Wu".
In addition, there is a small school called "Min School", which is said to have been created by Song Jue, a native of Putian in the Qing Dynasty, followed by Practical Theory, Xue Shuan and Lan Lian.
③ Modern seal master.
Seal cutting developed to the middle of the19th century, and famous artists such as Zhao, Wu Changshuo and others appeared. Zhao has a wide range of materials and diverse styles, which is due to his profound knowledge of epigraphy. His style is clumsy, vigorous and naive, which is beyond the reach of the ancients. He is good at Han Wadang's calligraphy and three generations of inscriptions, and studied under Deng, Wu Xizai and Zhao. His composition is unique, scattered and condensed, simple and ingenious, and his artistic personality is strong.
Qi Baishi, a master of modern seal cutting, is full of bold and innovative spirit. He holds a knife like a pen, with a wave of his hand, without false decoration. The brushwork is stirring, arranged vertically and horizontally, and has a unique style.
Third, Four Treasures of the Study.
Four Treasures of the Study, also known as "Four Gentlemen of the Study", is the general name of pen, ink, paper and inkstone. In the Neolithic painted pottery five or six thousand years ago, there was a pattern of brush strokes. Since then, Oracle Bone Inscriptions of the Yin people and silk books in the Spring and Autumn Period have been written with pens. The writing brush of the Warring States period has been unearthed in kind, and the method of making the brush has been constantly innovated. It has developed from a solid pen with ink to a centerless pen with more ink, better use and more words. There are two kinds of commonly used pens, soft pen and hard pen. In ancient times, "rabbit hair" and "wolf hair" were authentic. From Jiaqing and Daoguang years in Qing Dynasty, wool soft pen became popular. The key to the quality of a pen lies in its fineness, and a pen with four conditions of "sharp, neat, round and healthy" is a good pen. The origin of ink is not later than that of Yin Shang. The ancients ground charcoal into ink, then used graphite and gradually added gum. In the Tang Dynasty, the ink was extremely dark and the products were excellent. The standard of good ink is generally "fine smoke, light glue and black color". The legend of papermaking began in Cai Lun in the Eastern Han Dynasty. In fact, as early as the early Western Han Dynasty, bamboo slips and silks were replaced by banners. It was only in the Eastern Han Dynasty that papermaking technology was further improved and the quality of paper was higher. Since then, there are many kinds of paper, but the classification is nothing more than cooked paper, base paper and semi-cooked paper. Writing and drawing are suitable for each. Generally speaking, cooked paper and semi-cooked paper are better than raw paper. It is also difficult to determine when inkstone first appeared. There were no inkstones in ancient times, and mussels were used as inkstones. There were pottery inkstones and stone inkstones in the Han Dynasty. Since then, it has continued to develop. She inkstone and Duan inkstone have long enjoyed a good reputation. She inkstone comes from Anhui and Duan inkstone comes from Guangdong. Many names. In fact, good inkstones are not only produced in these two places, but also in many places. Therefore, you don't have to stick to famous brands when choosing inkstone. It is better to be a slightly larger square, with strong and delicate materials, deep concave ink and a cover to prevent dust.