Western poetry has no rhyme, and rhyme comes from Orientalism. Why did single rhyme spread to the west and develop into complex rhyme? Probably because the words in Indo-European are long and short, the syllable structure is not as neat as that in Chinese, and the stress position is changeable, which leads to different lengths at the end of the poem, creating conditions for the emergence of polyphony. Some lines end with stress, and some lines end with unstressed. How do they rhyme? -Then you have to rhyme with two sets.
Syllables are composed of phonemes, which are the smallest indecomposable units in speech and the pronunciation marks after letter combination. Phones are recognized by hearing, letters by vision, phonemes belong to pronunciation system, and letters belong to spelling system.
The foot, also known as the foot, is composed of syllables, that is, the foot in English (applicable to the whole Indo-European language family) poetry is usually defined as the length of rhythm, which is the basic unit of poetry rhythm. A sound group that expresses the rhythm of poetry. Also known as rhyme or rhyme. Poetry actually has two systems. One is phonology, which is expressed by rhythm, and rhythm is expressed by rhythm, which is rhyme step; The second is the spelling system, which is expressed by syllable combination and rhyme steps. The two systems are intertwined and inseparable. Only by combining the two can poetry have its own form of existence, and only then can it have the beauty of rhyme and form.
The most obvious difference between different styles of western sonnets is the difference in rhyme position and way (that is, rhyme form). When people mention it, they often pay attention to which line rhymes with which line first, but it is easy to ignore its structure. In fact, rhyme is closely related to structure: rhyme can connect several lines of poetry into sections, and rhyme change can separate different sections. The function of rhyme, to a certain extent, serves the structure of poetry.
Therefore, for sonnets, we should first study its internal structure, and then we can study rhyme and its spread in translation. As far as structure is concerned, Petrarch is two four lines plus two three lines, and Shakespeare is three four lines plus one two lines. We need to determine this framework first. As for how to rhyme a few lines, that is the next step.
Speaking of western rhyme, we can focus on four-character poems. Because quatrains are the most common typical poems in western poetry festivals. A quatrain has four rhymes:
The rhyme scheme is also called "rhyme" and "broken rhyme"-one, three, two and four lines (abab);
The rhyme scheme, also known as "ending rhyme" and "holding rhyme"-one or four lines, two or three lines (ABBA);
Rhyme scheme, also known as "rhyme"-one or two lines, three or four lines (AABB);
Ovrlap rhyme scheme, also known as "overlapping rhyme"-two lines rhyme (AA).
Because of the need of music harmony, the meter of sonnets is also quite strict, and in some places, the harshness (such as rhyming requirements) even exceeds that of China's ancient poems.
This poetic style has been widely used since Europe entered the Renaissance. The Italian poet Peterak became the most important representative who used sonnets. He wrote 375 sonnets in his life, which was included in the Lyrics Collection and dedicated to his lover Laura. In his sonnets, each poem is divided into two parts: the first part consists of two sonnets, and the second part consists of two sonnets, that is, arranged in four, four, three and three. Its rhyming formats include ABBA, ABBA, CDE, CDE or ABBA, ABBA, CDC, DCD and ABBA, ABBA, CDC, CDC and so on. There are eleven chapters in each line, usually iambic.
The origin of sonnets may come from the influence of love poems of minstrels among Sicilian court poets in the13rd century. Then it spread to Tuscany, where it reached its highest expression in his "canzonieri", a series of love poems written to "Laura", his idealized love. Peterak's sonnets are neat in form and beautiful in rhyme. The main content is to praise love and express humanism. His poems opened up a new way for the development of European bourgeois lyric poetry in content and form. Contemporary Italian poets and later some poets in other countries regard Peterak's poems as a model of sonnets and try to emulate them. Each song is divided into two parts: the first part consists of two four-line poems, and the second part consists of two three-line poems, which are arranged in four, four, three and three. Therefore, people also call it Peterak's poetic style.
/kloc-At the beginning of the 6th century, sonnets spread to England and became very popular. By the end of16th century, sonnets had become the most popular poetry genre in Britain. Famous sonnets, such as Sydney and Spencer, were produced. Shakespeare further developed and enriched this poetic style and wrote 154 sonnets all his life. Shakespeare's poems have changed the format of Peterak, which consists of three paragraphs and four lines and a pair of antitheses, that is, arranged in four, four, four and two, and their rhyming formats are Ababou, CDCD, EFEF and GG. There are ten iambic syllables in each line.
Shakespeare's sonnets go a step further than Peterak's, with more vivid and rich themes, twists and turns of thought and easy application, and often point out the meaning of the problem in the last dialogue. Later, Milton, Wordsworth, Shelley and Keats also wrote some excellent sonnets.
Alexander's poetic style, also known as "twelve-syllable poetic style", was named after the adoption of this poetic style in the legends of Alexandria, France in the Middle Ages, with twelve syllables per line and iambic five-step poetic style (sometimes called iambic six-step poetic style, but in French poetry, it is generally only called syllable, not meter). But to be precise, it should be "Alexandria", because strictly speaking, it is not a poetic style, but a poetic style or line (iambic pentameter format). Emerald is the most important verse in French poetry. This style is mostly used in Longsha's love poems, classical tragedies and comedies, and Hugo's important poems. French metrical poems do not pay attention to pace, but pay great attention to the order of syllables in lines, ranging from two-tone poems to thirteen-tone poems. Of course, twelve-tone poems are the most used poems. In order to promote and strengthen the harmony and distinctiveness of the rhythm of poetry, the rhyme strictly stipulates the "semi-comma method", that is, all the lines of poetry are divided into two halves, with a pause of half a comma in the middle, forming a special rhythm. For twelve-tone poems, that is, when they are used between two six syllables, a "half-teasing method" is formed. In French classical poetry, the semi-teasing rule is not allowed to be broken under any circumstances.
"onegin Poetry Festival" founded by Pushkin: each poem festival contains fourteen lines, each line contains four light and heavy steps, and each step has two syllables; Some of these fourteen lines end in a soft tone, which is called "Yin Yun" and has nine syllables (the last soft syllable does not constitute a step); Some people who have stress at the end of each line call it "Yang Yun", which has eight syllables; There is a strict coordination between the rhyme law of Yin and Yang and the rhyme law between lines. The rhyming rules of these sonnets are: Ababou, CCDD, EFFE, GG; The rules of rhyme conversion (each line is represented by different syllables) are: 9898, 9988, 9889, 88. At the end of 13, the use of sonnets expanded from lyric poems to narrative poems, Oracle Bone Inscriptions poems, political poems and satirical poems, and the rhyme format gradually changed into: ABBA, ABBA, CDC, DCD, or ABBA, ABBA, CDC and EDE.
Iacobo da Liantini (born in an unknown year, about 1246 to 1250), a medieval Italian Sicilian poet, was the first writer to adopt this poetic form and make it have strict meter. Sonnets have a fixed format. It consists of two parts, the first part is two sonnets, the second part is two sonnets, * * * sonnets. Each line of poetry is usually 1 1 syllable, iambic. There is a rhyme with feet at the end of each line, and its arrangement is: Ababou, Ababou, CDE, CDE. It was a popular genre in Italian lyric poetry at that time, which was as famous as folk songs and lyric short songs.
Petrarch, a Renaissance poet, is the main representative of this poetic style. He wrote more than 300 sonnets in his life. He inherited the traditions of "Sicilian Poetry School" and "Gentle New Style Poetry School", expressed the changeable and tortuous feelings of characters with romantic passion, beautiful rhyme and gorgeous colors, and injected humanistic thoughts into the new era. Its rhyming formats include ABBA, ABBA, CDE, CDE or ABBA, ABBA, CDC, DCD and ABBA, ABBA, CDC, CDC and so on. There are eleven chapters in each line, usually iambic. Petrarch's sonnets were more perfect in art, which became an important poetic style imitated by poets from other countries later, and had a great influence on the development of European poetry. So Italian sonnets are also called Petrarch.
Sonnets were very popular in the Italian Renaissance. Medici, Michelangelo, Bovado, Tasso and other poets are all excellent sonnet writers. Later, it became the favorite school of "marino Poetry School" and "Acadian Poetry School". Early Romantic poets got rid of the traditional framework and pursued free and informal poetic forms. Sonnets were once neglected, but they were revived in the second half of19th century, and Calduch and Gabriele Dannunzio left masterpieces. Poetry creation continued to be popular in the 20th century.
Under the influence of Italian Renaissance literature, sonnets were introduced to France, Britain, Germany and the West, and adapted to the characteristics of various languages, resulting in different variants. Marlowe first transplanted it to France. The works of Rabe, a poet of Lyons School, and Langsa and Dubbel, poets of Seven Stars School, made sonnets an important form of French poetry in16th century.
/kloc-At the beginning of the 6th century, Surrey and Walter introduced sonnets to Britain. The format of the poem has evolved into three four-line poems and a pair of antitheses, and the rhyming methods are Ababou, CDCD, EFEF and GG. There are other variants outside this type. English is divided into three paragraphs, four sentences and the last two sentences. The last two sentences are usually very different from the first two sentences, and the change is more dramatic than the ninth sentence in Italian class. /kloc-at the end of 0/6, sonnets became one of the most popular poetic styles in Britain, resulting in famous sonnets such as Sidney and Spencer. Shakespeare further enriched and developed this poetic style. His sonnet style (also known as Elizabethan style) is also composed of three sonnets and a pair of dialogues. Its characteristics are vivid image, ingenious structure, strong musicality and easy contact. Often in the last pair of dialogues, the content is summarized, the theme is pointed out, and the ideals and feelings of the emerging bourgeoisie are expressed. Later, Milton, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats and others were also famous for writing excellent sonnets. The rhymes of general English sonnets are: A-B-A-B, C-D-C-D, E-F-E-F, G-G (called "Shakespeare style" or "Elizabeth style"), or more strictly speaking, A-B-A-B, B-C-B-C, C.
Sonnets were introduced into Germany late. Opitz first advocated sonnets in On German Poetry (1624), and formulated the rules of poetic meter, which played a certain role in the development of German poetry. Goethe and Romantic poets also attached great importance to this form.
Pushkin is the founder of modern Russian literature. He is good at various literary genres. He is called "the father of Russian literature" and "the sun of Russia", and his poems are dazzling, beautiful and diverse in style. According to the popular sonnet meter since the Renaissance, referring to the changes and development of the sonnet style written by different Italian, German, French, Spanish, British and other countries, and considering the syllable stress characteristics of Russian vocabulary, he creatively formulated the unique meter of "onegin Poetry Festival". Pushkin's inheritance and development of European poetry tradition in poetic form is intrinsically related to the inheritance and development of humanism in European literature since the Renaissance. According to onegin Poetry Festival, the basic unit of a long poem is a stanza, each stanza contains 65,438+04 lines, each line contains four iambic steps, and each step has two syllables. In this 14 line, some lines end in a soft tone, which is called "yinyun" and has 9 syllables (the last light syllable does not constitute a step); Some people who have stress at the end of each line call it "Yang Yun", which has eight syllables; There is a strict coordination between the rhyme law of Yin and Yang and the rhyme law between lines. The rhythms of these sonnets are Ababou, CCDD, EFFE and GG. The number of syllables per line is 9898, 9988, 9889 and 88. These strict rules are intertwined, which constitutes the unique metrical features of onegin Poetry Festival. The first four lines are a whole and rhyme; The second four-line rhyme can actually be regarded as two lines. The bigger problem is the last six lines. It can be analyzed as four lines with rhyme and two lines, or as two or three lines that are interrelated. It can be considered as including four rhymes: horizontal rhyme, embracing rhyme, shun rhyme and overlapping rhyme, and it can also be considered as a structure of four plus four plus three plus three. Compared with the sonnets of Peterak and Shakespeare, it has its own unique beauty. After Pushkin, in the history of Russian literature, only his worthy successor, lermontov, wrote a poetic novel Mrs. Tang Bofu, the Finance Director, with more than 50 verses (yevgeni onegin has more than 420 verses and other manuscripts). In addition, no other poet dares to ask. It can be said that "onegin Poetry Festival" is unprecedented, and there will be no one after it!
Sonnets were transliterated into Shanglai style in early Chinese, and then translated into "Sonnets" freely, but the new translation is not accurate. First of all, sonnets are usually sonnets, but there are variations. For example, among Shakespeare's 154 sonnets, the 99th one has 15, while the 26th one only has 12. In addition, the title of "Sonnet" does not include other features of Sonnet. This may also reflect the situation and choice when translating foreign poetry genres in Chinese. The word Sonnet can be traced back to Latin sonus, so it is closely related to the roots of English words sound and song. It evolved directly from Italian sonetto, and was also related to sonet (short song) in Provence in southern France in the Middle Ages. To put it simply, sonnet refers to a kind of lyric short poem, which generally has 14 lines, each line has a specific rhythm, and there is a fixed rhyme format between lines. The meter of sonnets mainly includes lines, rhymes, syllables, tones and structures. First, the number of lines: fourteen lines are required, each line is not necessarily a complete sentence. Sometimes a sentence with coherent meaning is divided into two lines for rhyme, but the number of words in each line is not necessarily the same. Second, the structure: generally divided into two parts. The number of lines in the front and back parts of different poems is different. Peterak's style consists of two quatrains (***8 lines) and two three-line poems (***6 lines). Spencer style and Shakespeare style are composed of three four-line poems (* * 12 lines) and one two-line poem (* * 2 lines). onegin Poetry Festival is composed of two four-line poems (***8 lines), two three-line poems (***6 lines) or three four-line poems (* * 6544 lines). At the extreme, there are Shelley's sonnets, which consist of four three-line poems (*** 12 lines) and a two-line poem. 3. Rhyme is one of the difficulties and characteristics of sonnets. Sonnets are based on different poetic styles: 4 to 5 in Peterak style, 6 in Spencer style, 7 in Shakespeare style and 7 in onegin Poetry Festival. English vocabulary is generally composed of polysyllabic words. Rhyme refers to the last syllable of the last word in each line, which is called rhyme according to regulations. The arrangement of rhymes before and after each style is: Peterak style ABBA, ABBA, CDC, DCD (4 rhymes) or CDE, CDE (5 rhymes), which belong to rhymes; Spencer's style is ABAB, BCBC, CDCD, EE, and the last two sentences are antithetical sentences, which are rhyming. Shakespeare's Baba, CDCD, EFEF and GG belong to hermaphroditism (7 rhymes), and the last two sentences are dual; "onegin Poetry Festival" ABAB, CCDD, EFFE, GG, rhyming, following rhyme, holding rhyme and overlapping rhyme are all ready (7 rhymes). Fourth, the collocation of light and heavy sounds. China's metrical poems are quatrains, which require each poem to be even and flat, so as to make the tone cadence and sonorous. Sonnets do not require the same number of poems per line, but they require the same pace, two syllables, one light and one heavy. Spencer and Shakespeare require five steps with 65,438+00 syllables per line. Peterak style requires 1 1 syllable; French needs 12 syllables. The end of onegin's stanza is a light tone, which is called "Yin Yun" and has nine syllables (the last light tone does not constitute a foot); Some people who end with stress call it "Yang Yun", which has eight syllables. Sonnets are widely circulated in the west. In addition to Italy (represented by Petrarch) and Britain (represented by Shakespeare), some people in Spain, France, Portugal, Germany, Poland and Russia also wrote sonnets, but their achievements were not as good as the former. China's new poetry poets mainly imitate other poems and Shakespeare's poems. It is generally believed that China's greatest achievement in writing sonnets should be Feng Zhi, whose main work is sonnets. Feng Zhi, a former professor of Tongji University and director of the affiliated middle school, is probably the most famous literary master in Tongji history.