Another view is that the Middle Ages ended in the Renaissance and the era of great navigation. The word "Middle Ages" was used by Italian humanist Biondo in the late15th century.
Europe in this period did not have a strong regime to rule. Feudal separatism brought frequent wars, and Christianity imprisoned people's thoughts, which led to the stagnation of science and technology and productivity, and people lived in hopeless pain. Therefore, the Middle Ages or early Middle Ages are generally called "dark ages" in Europe and America. Traditionally, this is a period of relatively slow development in the history of European civilization. (About its name, it is also called "the Middle Ages" or "the Middle Ages", and it is also called "the Dark Ages")
introduce
Time category
Medieval history is also called medieval history. Due to different concepts, the world has different understandings of the beginning and end of medieval history.
The formation, development and disintegration of feudal system is the main line of European history in this period. However, the development of feudal society in the world is unbalanced. (Note: The "feudal society" here is not the "slave society and capitalist society" that we usually compare, but refers to the society under the system of enfeoffment. Mainly in the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties, the western Zhou dynasty is the most typical. But this "feudal society" under the background of China is different from that in Europe)
The theory of bipolar world holds that the political form of medieval Europe was decentralized gentry system and the economic form was serfdom.
Dark ages
Another view is that until the 9th century, according to St. Augustine's view, most ancient scholars believed that human beings were in the sixth and last stage of history, that is, the "doomsday" predicted by the Bible in Revelation, so it had a dark meaning. Historians generally believe that the term "the dark ages of the Middle Ages" was invented by Petrarch, a humanist of the Italian Renaissance in the14th century. He traveled around Europe, rediscovering and publishing classic Latin and Greek works, aiming at restoring Roman classical Latin language, art and culture. He thinks that the changes and events since the fall of Rome in 4 10 A.D. are not worth studying. Humanists look at history not according to Augustine's religious terms, but according to social (academic) terms, that is, through classical culture, literature and art; Therefore, humanists call this 900-year period of classical culture stagnation the "dark period".
Petrarch divided European history into two stages: one was the period of ancient Rome and ancient Greece; The second is the "dark period". Humanists also believe that one day the Roman Empire will rise again and restore the purity of classical culture. At the end of 14 and the beginning of 15, humanists believed that a modern era had begun, so logically speaking, a "Middle Ages" had been formed.
Therefore, starting from humanists, historians also hold negative views on "the dark ages" and "the Middle Ages". In the reformation of Protestants in16th century and17th century, Protestants also wrote the corruption of Catholicism into this history. In response to Protestants' accusations, Catholic reformers also gave the opposite picture to the "dark period": a period of social and religious harmony, which was not dark at all. As for the "dark period", many modern negative ideas come from the works of Kant and Voltaire in the Enlightenment in 17 and 18 centuries.
historical changes
/kloc-at the beginning of the 0/9th century, the romantic movement changed this one-sided negative thinking tendency about the "dark period".
It gives a peaceful picture: the harmony between society and environment is rooted in the life of nature; At the same time, it also responded to the rationalism in the Enlightenment that rationality completely surpassed sensibility, and the environmental damage and pollution caused by the rising industrial revolution. Through the customs and historical events displayed, we can still see the romantic views about the "dark period" in some cultural activities and festivals celebrating that period today.
In the second half of the19th century after the Romantic Movement, archaeology has made great progress, and many historical documents and cultural relics unknown to predecessors have been excavated and sorted out. The discovery of Sutton Hu Cave 1939 around 625 A.D. and the research of Charles H. haskins, a famous scholar in medieval studies, make "dark period" no longer seem to be an appropriate word.
Medieval countries
With the destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the Germans, a number of barbarian countries appeared one after another. Lumbard, Odyak, Burgundy, Vandal Alain, Eastern Gothic, Visigoth, Anglo-Saxon and other kingdoms were established successively. There are wars between kingdoms, among which Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms have existed for a long time.
As a branch of the Germans, the Franks defeated the Gaul army in 486, and Clovis established the rule of the Mei Tam dynasty. Clovis, by uniting with the Vatican, occupied all the territory of the Roman Empire in Gaul.
With the continuous expansion of the Frankish kingdom, in the middle of the 6th century, it conquered some tribes in Burgundy, Thuringia, Bavaria and Saxony, became the most powerful country in Western Europe at that time, and established a feudal manor system. In 75 1 year, the palace gnome Paiping became the king of Franks and established the Carolingian dynasty. During Charlemagne's reign, the national strength reached its peak, including the annexation of Lombardy, the occupation of the Spanish border area, the occupation of eastern Bavaria and the conquest of awar Khan. Most of the land in western Europe became the territory of the Frankish kingdom. After Charlemagne's death, the Frankish kingdom was divided by the war between brothers. The treaty of verdun in August, 843 was divided into West Frank, Middle Frank and East Frank, and the territory of modern France, Italy and Germany was based on this treaty.
Another Germanic branch, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, entered the British Isles in the middle of the 5th century. Seven kingdoms were formed at the end of the 6th century and the beginning of the 7th century, which was called the Seven Kingdoms Period in British history.
In 829, the kingdom of Wessex annexed six other kingdoms, and England was born. 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, France, requested to inherit the throne by blood. After being rejected, the Battle of Hastings took place. He seized the British throne by force and was called "William the Conqueror" (that is, William I), and established the Norman Dynasty. Later, the grandson of the French king succeeded to the British throne, but this also caused the root of the hundred-year war between the British and French royal families for the future succession of the French throne.
During the reign of Henry I (1100 ~1135), with the strengthening of kingship, social contradictions intensified. 12 15 John (Landless) was forced to sign the Magna Carta of Freedom.
1264 during the civil war, Henry III was captured by Simon de montfort.
1265, montfort called the parliament, which became the beginning of the British parliament.
From 1343, the parliament was divided into an upper house composed of nobles and a lower house representing knights and citizens, and a parliamentary monarchy was established. At the same time, the western Frankish kingdom evolved into the French kingdom, and the kingship was strengthened. The Vatican was forced to move to avignon in the south of France, held three-level meetings from top to bottom (the first level was the high priest, the second level was the aristocrat, and the third level was the wealthy citizen), and also formed a parliamentary monarchy.
The East Frankish Kingdom, the predecessor of Germany, lost its kingship, and the local vassal regime was very strong. After the Carolingian dynasty of the East Franks died in 9 1 1, the French royal family should have sent someone to succeed the German king, but at this time Germany was invaded by the East, so the local dignitaries elected a duke as their ally to replace the king, which gave birth to the later German king election system. The king is generally called "Caesar", and is elected by the Emperor Elector from Wang Zizhong, not necessarily a German prince. It can also be a foreign vassal (only a title without a throne), such as the Earl of France, the Earl of Italy or the Duke of Luxembourg and other low-lying countries. In China, it is often translated as "emperor" or "king", which is more about reputation. The right to choose a king is equal to that of local governors. This feature is considered by historians to be the reason why it is keen on external expansion.
In 95 1 year, Otto I led troops to occupy Lumbard, and then Otto II marched into Rome.
1 155, Frederick I captured Milan, and the Pope crowned it as the Holy Roman Empire. In its heyday, the territory included all of Germany, central and northern Italy, Sicily, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Estonia and Prussia. Frederick I was defeated by 15 city (Lombardy League). Frederick I drowned in the Third Crusade and the occupied area became independent.
culture
Italy has never been unified. In order to maintain his independent status, the Pope established a papal state and forged the document of "Constantine Gift", claiming that Constantine the Great gave Rome, Rutland Palace and other places to the Pope. The church is very strict and controls the culture and education in western Europe. Priests can't get married, advocate abstinence, and ask people to give everything to God in order to go to heaven after death. On the other hand, the sale of clergy is very serious. We advocate scholasticism such as trinity and original sin theory, strictly control the spread of scientific ideas, set up inquisition to punish heresy, and school education also serves theology. During the period of Pope Gregory I (590-604 AD), ancient Roman libraries were also set on fire.
11~13rd century is the peak of the development of medieval culture. /kloc-At the end of 0/3, the Renaissance came into being in Italy and spread to many European countries. At this time, many philosophers, writers, artists and scientists emerged, such as Dante, Boccaccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Machiavelli, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo, Kepler, Harvey and Francis Bacon.
economy
The economy in the Middle Ages was mainly a feudal manor-style natural economy. A number of commercial cities have emerged: Paris, Lyon, Daulnay, Marseille, Cologne, Trier, Strasbourg, Hamburg, Venice, Genoa, etc., forming a trade zone centered on the Mediterranean.
/kloc-After the 0/6th century, the workshop handicraft industry rose. First in Florence, then in Flanders, the enclosure movement made Britain develop rapidly. This economic model accelerated trade, thus making great geographical discoveries and discovering the new continent of America. Workshop handicrafts have also made a leap in weapons of war. Cannons and muskets gradually replaced the knight's sword, and the ancient castle lost its defense ability. Workshop handicraft industry gave birth to capitalist economy. In the middle and late period of 17 Middle Ages, various handicrafts gradually developed from individual operation to the establishment of trade unions, and the concept of "specialty" was born in this period.
military affairs
Medieval castle
In the feudal society of Europe, the feudal lords, such as kings, nobles and knights, formed a pyramid hierarchy, but their rights and obligations were limited. "Minister belongs to non-minister", which makes the feudal countries in Europe in a state of separatism for a long time. China in the East is "all over the world, is it not the land of kings?" On the land coast, is it very different from the centralized feudal monarchy of Wang Chen?
The rulers of various countries are still waging wars, plundering and annexing each other, and many countries have never had a stable unified regime. Feudal landlords exploited farmers by virtue of land ownership and political power. In Europe, Christian churches became the tools of feudal rule, and they maintained the feudal system together with secular feudal owners. The labor of peasants and serfs was embezzled by feudal lords in the form of servitude, land rent in kind, various taxes and church tithes. The peasants resisted constantly, but there was no large-scale peasant war that overthrew a dynasty as China did many times.
The wars in the Middle Ages were organized by scattered fighting groups, confronted and clashed with each other on the battlefield that needed strategy and mobilization, and then gradually evolved. Part of evolution is reflected in the development of different arms and weapons and how to use them. The early army in the dark ages was a group of unorganized soldiers on foot. When heavy cavalry rises, the best army is a group of unorganized knights.
Soldiers on foot will cause damage to farmland along the way, which will cause a greater blow in siege warfare. When the two armies confront each other, the heavy cavalry are often arranged in front of the army, the light cavalry are on the two wings, and the infantry and Gong Bing are behind (a large array in the Middle Ages). After the battle begins, the heavy cavalry will take the lead in charging the enemy formation. The power of heavy cavalry charge is enormous, and several successful charges can completely tear apart the enemy's formation. However, in a melee, the knights will try to fight the enemy one-on-one, and the foot soldiers will be caught between the enemy and our own knights. This method of warfare is actually very dangerous, because most of the soldiers in the early Middle Ages were peasants recruited under the feudal system and had no combat training. Gong Bing is very suitable for siege warfare, but there is also the risk of total annihilation on the battlefield.
By the late14th century, commanders had strengthened the discipline of knights, so that their troops could play a greater cooperative role as a team. However, in the British army, although the longbowmen proved their value in many battlefields, the knights didn't pay much attention to these shooters. Discipline also makes more and more knights fight for rewards, and rarely fight for loyal and glorious soldiers. Italian mercenaries are famous for fighting for a long time with little damage. In this period, soldiers from all walks of life are assets of the army and will not be easily abandoned. This makes the feudal army that once pursued glory gradually become a professional army that only cares about how much money it will collect.
The cavalry will be divided into three teams or three units, and then one team will fight one after another. The first wave of attacks will break through or disperse the enemy, and then the second or third wave of attacks can be subdued. Once the enemy escapes, they can be killed or captured.
In fact, if the knight takes personal action, it will do great harm to any commander's plan. What knights value most in the first row of first-class teams is loyalty, glory and riding. In order to win personal glory, the overall victory on the battlefield has become the second. After fighting on the battlefield, it won't be long before the knights attack the enemy they see, thus undermining the overall battle plan.
The best way for a commander to control his knights is to unload them immediately when necessary. This is a common way for small armies, because these knights rarely expect to perform well in battle. Dismounting knights can strengthen their combat power in time and boost the morale of ordinary infantry. These knights and the rest of the infantry will be used to fight behind wooden stakes or other battlefield fortifications to slow down the enemy's charge.
The battle of Chris in 1346 is an example of the knight's indiscipline. At that time, the French army surpassed the British army in number (40,000 to 1 10,000 people), and there were many knights. The British army divided the longbowmen into three teams and put them into the battlefield under the protection of wooden stakes. Among these three teams, there are two dismounted knights, and the third dismounted knight is reserved as a reserve. The French king also organized his knights into three parts, and appointed Gong Bing, who was hired by Genenos, to shoot the English knights, but it was useless because the crossbow was wet.
In addition, the French knights ignored the organizational efforts of the French king. Shortly after the war, as soon as they saw the enemy, they went into a rage and opened their mouths and shouted again and again, "Kill! Kill! " Because the French king couldn't stand the repeated inaccuracies of Genoa arrows, he ordered the knights to move forward and knocked down the Genoa crossbowman in front of them. The battle lasted all day, and finally the English knights and longbowmen (who kept the bowstring dry) defeated the French knights who rode horses but were undisciplined and messed up in the battle.
By the end of the Middle Ages, the value of heavy cavalry on the battlefield was not as good as before, almost equal to that of projection troops and infantry. During this period, people have understood why well-planned attacks still fail and the importance of training infantry. The rules of combat have changed, and wooden stakes, horse traps and trenches are often used by the army as protective tools against cavalry attacks. If cavalry attacks a large number of spearmen and Gong Bing (or gunners) at all levels, it will only produce a large number of wounded horses and cavalry. Knights will be forced to fight on foot or wait for the right time to attack. A devastating attack can only be effective when the enemy is moving, chaotic, or coming out of temporary battlefield fortifications.
religion
In order to maintain his independent status, the Pope established a papal state, forged Constantine's gift, and set up an inquisition to punish heresy. School education also serves theology. During the period of Pope Gregory I (590 ~604), ancient Roman libraries were also set on fire.
The influence of religion on science
Since Constantine announced the legalization of Christianity in 3 12 AD, Christians have changed from persecuted to persecutors. They are hostile to everything that does not conform to the Bible, including some new ideas and science. Many great thinkers and scientists in history have been persecuted by Christians. In the Middle Ages, the so-called heresy was persecuted by the Vatican Inquisition and Calvin Inquisition. On the other hand, the church also attaches great importance to the inheritance of ancient knowledge and education, and many universities in Europe are established with the support of the Holy See.
1, Copernicus: A famous Polish astronomer, who wrote The Operation of Celestial Bodies and was brutally persecuted by the church. 1543 died on May 20th.
2. Bruno who insisted on Copernicus' "Heliocentrism" was first put in prison. After hearing the verdict, he said contemptuously to the executioners who killed people without blinking an eye: "Your fear when reading the verdict is much greater than that when I walked into the fire." Later, he was burned to death in Rome Flower Square on February 1600.
3. Sebastian (375-4 15) is the first known female mathematician in history. Gibbon said in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: "She was pulled out of the car, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and used sharp oysters on a group of savage and inhuman fanatics? She stripped her flesh from the bone, cut off her hands and feet and threw them into the fire.
4. Galileo: a famous Italian physicist. In order to defend the scientific truth, he was persecuted by the Inquisition in 1633 and died in 1642, when he was blind.
Palisi, a scientist, was sentenced to death by the Inquisition for saying that fossils are the remains of animals rather than "the game of the creator".
6. Servit put forward the viewpoint of blood circulation in the book "Revival of Christian Belief", which was baked for more than two hours and died;
7. Belgian physiologist Vesaliua Uss was forced to go to the holy land-Jerusalem to confess in 1564 for publishing anatomical work "Human Body Structure", and was killed on his way home.
8. Amauri: Professor of Paris University, 12 10. After his death, he was tried for preaching pantheism, his grave was dug up, and all ten disciples were executed.
9.Cirkel: A professor at the University of Paris was beaten to death by the church for making so-called heretical remarks in physics research.
Religious evolution
Christianity was born in the period of religious turmoil and economic upheaval in the vast Greek and Roman world. During this period, the sense of security that society gained from the traditional gods who believed in Greek and Roman religions was fading, and new sects such as Isis (Islamic State), Mithraism, Sibly, Invictus, Gnosticism and Christianity were replacing the traditional gods. These new sects not only compete with each other, but also integrate and absorb each other's teachings and religious ceremonies. At the same time, their basic beliefs are surprisingly consistent: the world will eventually die, because it is full of evil; When people are born guilty, they should stay away from the secular world and cultivate themselves in the eternal spiritual field in order to get endless blessings. Therefore, they not only adopt different degrees of asceticism in practice, but also believe that a savior is willing to exchange his life for eternal life after death for his followers. This trend of thought was not limited to religion, but also acted on Neo-Platonism and Neo-Pythagoreanism in the field of philosophy at that time. Some schools of philosophy even play the role of religion, trying to guide followers to achieve the purpose of redemption through unity with God.
At the moment when the traditional belief in gods comes to an end, people are eager to establish close personal contact with the ruler of a world-the only god with personality attributes. Many people begin to believe that direct revelation from the only God can help them overcome the evil in the world. So a large number of exclusive groups were formed, planning their own unique redemption plans. Christianity is one of them.
Christianity spread slowly in the Greek and Roman world. The success of the Apostle Paul in the Greek world in the first century after A.D. made Christianity expand to the century outside Jerusalem for the first time after its formation. It was not until 300 A.D. that Christianity really spread throughout the Roman Empire. In 3 13, Constantine I issued the decree of Milan, which stipulated that Christianity enjoyed completely equal rights with other religions in the empire. In 392, Emperor Diodo closed all pagan temples and banned pagan worship, otherwise it would be regarded as treason. From its rise to 392, after nearly four centuries, the slow and peaceful expansion of Christianity finally won. It is this seemingly slow but solid infiltration that makes Christianity adapt to the surrounding pagan century, and early Christians can't foresee what role their religion will play.
During its infiltration and for a long time after its victory, Christianity was influenced by pagan academics around it and made many major adjustments, which were reflected in many knowledgeable Christians. Their works have had a far-reaching impact on later generations.
Disease epidemic
The first epidemic was called Justinian plague. It happened twice, from 540 to 590. There is no clear statistics on the number of deaths, but it is generally believed that this epidemic caused about 25 million deaths in the eastern Mediterranean. This plague weakened the Byzantine Empire, and Justinian failed in his attempt to restore the glorious dream of the Roman Empire.
The second Black Death hit Europe on a large scale from 1346 to 1350, resulting in a sharp decline in the population of Europe, with a mortality rate as high as 100%. The Black Death is thought to have been brought by Mongols. About 1347, the Genoese merchant ship between Crimea and Messina (Sicily) brought infected black rats or fleas, which quickly spread to Genoa and Venice, and the epidemic spread to France, Spain and Britain in 1348+0350, and then spread eastward to Germany and Scandinavia. It is estimated that about 25 million people died in Europe, while about 55 million to 75 million people died in Europe, Asia and Africa. At that time, there was no cure, so we could only use isolation to stop the spread of the epidemic. Since then, the Black Death has invaded Europe many times in 15 and 16 centuries. However, the mortality and severity are gradually decreasing.
Some people think that the Black Death severely hit the traditional social structure of Europe, weakened the feudal and church forces, and indirectly contributed to the later Renaissance and religious reform.
Medieval knights
nominal definition
Knight, or samurai, is a cavalry with formal military training in medieval Europe, which later evolved into an honorary title to represent a social class. In the present chaotic situation, both kings and nobles need some arms that have overwhelming advantages in the war, so they will carefully train some young people to become knights. The identity of a knight is often not inherited, and its essence is different from that of a noble. In addition to obtaining fiefs like nobles, knights must also serve in the Lord's army and bring their own weapons and horses in wartime. In chivalrous literature, chivalry is often a symbol of courage and loyalty. Every knight takes chivalry as the criterion and is the embodiment of a hero (not necessarily so). Chivalry in Europe is similar to that in Japan.
It takes 14 years to train a boy to become a knight. During this period, the trained boy will initially follow the Lord's wife as a waiter and learn etiquette; After that, he will learn the "seven knights" (swimming, javelin, fencing, riding, hunting, chess, poetry) and work for the Lord or the knight who is responsible for training him. After becoming a knight, you should follow the "chivalrous spirit", such as loyalty to the king or Lord, protecting the church and women and children, weeding out the strong and helping the weak, and fighting bravely.
In the Middle Ages, knights not only fought for lords or kings, but also participated in some competitive activities at some time every year. These competitive activities have special names:
When two knights are on horseback, the competition in which they shoot down each other's horses with spears is called "instant competition". The spears and armor used in real-time competitions are different from those used in actual combat. The spears used in the competition are mostly crown-shaped or cup-shaped spears without tips, and the spears are made of hollow or slotted poplar. The left chest of the armor has a specially reinforced metal plate to resist the impact, and the saddle used in the competition has no rear axle, which makes them easier to fight. Sometimes, one side will still fight with other weapons until one side dies, loses consciousness or surrenders, and the surrendered or unconscious side will become the prisoner of the winner, and the family will have to pay a ransom to redeem it.
More than two groups of knights engaged in the above competitive activities are called "tournament meetings".
The first intention of these competitive activities is that the king wants to mobilize the nobles to monitor the vicinity, but also to maintain the fighting quality of the knights.
Sealing process
Becoming a knight is the dream of every medieval boy. At the beginning, the meditation ceremony was simply to pat the recipient on the right shoulder with a sword and give him a name, but as time went on, the process gradually became very difficult. The following is the process of a medieval boy becoming a knight.
1. First of all, you should be born into a noble family in medieval Europe. At the age of seven, he will be sent to another knight's house as a page and learn various knight manners. At the age of fourteen, he will become a squire, receive various trainings and learn the "chivalrous spirit".
2.2 1 year-old, ready to become a knight. Before being knighted, you should clean yourself, and then put on white clothes and red robes: white clothes mean you are clean, and red robes mean you are ready to be brave and injured at any time.
After getting dressed, you should fast for one day and pray to God with your sword in front of the shield. The contents of prayer include asking God to forgive your sins, sanctifying yourself, promising to protect the church, and vowing to "help the weak except the strong". At this time, any attendants who do not agree to be knighted can destroy the shield, and the attendants must defend their shields with swords.
Finally, it will be sent to the giver. The instructor will lay the sword flat and press it on his right shoulder. Sometimes there is a kind headless sword to perform this ceremony and give blessings. In this way, the official ceremony was completed and he officially became a knight.
In rare cases, attendants will be chased on the battlefield because of their heroic performance in battle.
The influence of the church
Literature: There are a considerable number of books in various monasteries and monasteries, among which Benedictine Church is the most important. There are also a large number of books between classes, which are constantly copied and expanded.
Education: Monastery school was the safest educational institution in that turbulent era, with responsible teachers who were not very high in level. They developed the traditional seven arts education and founded the early universities.
Ideologically, the theory based on Aristotle in Greek philosophy has been preserved and developed. Although scholasticism is tedious, it makes formal logic more refined and prepares for the later development of thought. The debate between nominalism and realism preserved and developed the fire of struggle between materialism and idealism.
Art: Through religious music, ancient tunes are preserved, and new music theories and methods are slowly but firmly developed. Architectural technology has been preserved, and new architectural art and technology have been embodied in religious architecture. The art of painting and sculpture, which emphasizes strong emotion and profound experience, has been developed.
Other definitions
/kloc-Petrarch, a humanist of Italian Renaissance in the 4th century, traveled around Europe, rediscovering and publishing classic Latin and Greek works, aiming at restoring the Latin language, art and culture originated from Roman classics, and focusing on the changes and events since the fall of Rome in 4 10, that is, looking at history through classical culture, literature and art.
Many negative views about the "dark period" in modern times come from the works of Kant and Voltaire in the Enlightenment in 17 and 18 century.
Medieval painting 65438+the beginning of the 9th century, the Romantic movement changed this negative and one-sided trend towards the "dark period".
Archaeology has made great progress in the second half of the19th century after the Romantic Movement.
After the middle of the 20th century, the word "dark period" gradually disappeared from the literature of English-speaking professional scholars. Charlie Haskin wrote: "The continuity of history excludes the possibility of great differences between the following two historical periods-the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Modern research shows that the Middle Ages were not as dark and stagnant as once thought. The Renaissance was neither so bright nor so sudden. Before the Italian Renaissance, there was a similar movement, although it was not so extensive. So the original "Dark Ages" was changed to refer to the European history from 4 10 (or 455) to 754 (or 800).