Mandarin is Mandarin.
Mandarin is the modern standard Chinese. Putonghua takes Beijing dialect as the standard pronunciation, northern dialect as the basic dialect, and typical modern vernacular as the grammatical norm. It is the common language of Chinese in Chinese mainland and overseas. Standard Mandarin Speech Acquisition Station in Luanping County, Chengde City, Hebei Province.
Mandarin is the official language of People's Republic of China (PRC), one of the four official languages of Singapore and one of the six official working languages of the United Nations. Article 19 of the constitution of People's Republic of China (PRC) stipulates: the state promotes putonghua, which is commonly used in the country? . People's Republic of China (PRC) Common Language and Characters Law established Putonghua? National common language? The legal status of.
Mandarin is the modern standard Chinese. The appellation and definition of modern standard Chinese vary from place to place, which Chinese mainland called? Mandarin? What's the name of Taiwan Province Province? Mandarin? Southeast Asia is called? China? They all use Beijing dialect as the standard pronunciation, northern dialect as the basic dialect, and typical modern vernacular as the grammatical norm. And compared with non-Chinese, it is often called? China? Or? China? . Mandarin, Mandarin and Chinese are different in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
Held in June 1955? National conference on text reform? And then what? Academic conference on standardization of modern Chinese? During this period, the official name of Chinese homophonic was officially defined as? Mandarin? And defined as? Dialect based on Beijing pronunciation and northern dialect? . 1956 On February 6th, the State Council issued instructions on promoting Putonghua, adding the definition of Putonghua to? Beijing pronunciation is the standard pronunciation, northern dialect is the basic dialect, and typical modern vernacular works are grammatical norms. ? This definition defines the standard of Putonghua from three aspects: pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. ? Mandarin? This word has been widely used and has a clear connotation [1].
? Pronunciation based on Beijing accent? , refers to the phonetic system of Beijing dialect as the standard, Beijing pronunciation as the standard, and the Roman alphabet recognizes spelling. However, we don't copy all the pronunciations of Beijing dialect. Putonghua is not equal to Beijing dialect, let alone the earliest Beijing dialect.
As far as vocabulary standards are concerned, Mandarin? Based on the northern dialect? , refers to the saying that is widely used in the vast northern dialect areas, and at the same time, it is necessary to absorb the needed words from other dialects.
What is the grammatical standard of Putonghua? Take the typical modern vernacular as the grammatical norm? This standard includes four aspects:? Models? It is to exclude atypical modern vernacular works as grammatical norms; ? Vernacular Is to exclude classical Chinese; ? Modern vernacular? It is a modern vernacular written work since the May 4th Movement, excluding the early vernacular before the May 4th Movement. ? Works? It refers to the written form of Putonghua, which is based on spoken language, but it is not equal to ordinary spoken language, but a processed and refined language. The grammar of Putonghua is based on the modern vernacular masterpieces of Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Bing Xin and Ye Shengtao, and it must be in these modern vernacular works? General use case? .
2 Status Putonghua aims at standardization. Mandarin is also the official national language of China. It is used all over the country, including ethnic autonomous areas and areas where ethnic minorities live in compact communities. Article 19 of the constitution of People's Republic of China (PRC) stipulates that the state promotes putonghua which is commonly used throughout the country? . The Law of People's Republic of China (PRC) on National Common Language and Characters has established the standard of Putonghua and standardized Chinese characters. National common language? The legal status of.
develop
Sui dynasty
The Sui Dynasty unified Chang 'an, the capital of China. Because the northern part of China has been ruled by nomadic people in the north for a long time, great changes have taken place in the customs and culture of the Han nationality. Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty was bent on restoring the rites and music of the Han nationality, and did many measures to restore the culture of the Han nationality, including ordering Lu Fayan and others to compile Qieyun to examine more classic and pure Chinese.
the Tang Dynasty
On the basis of cutting rhyme, the Tang Dynasty formulated Tang rhyme as the standard pronunciation of the Tang Dynasty, stipulating that officials and imperial examinations must use Tang rhyme.
Song dynasty
In the Song Dynasty, Guang Yun was formulated on the basis of Tang Yun. Later, because the pronunciation of Guang Yun was very different from that of that time, Liu Yuan of Southern Song Dynasty wrote Ping Yun Shui.
the Yuan Dynasty
On the basis of Dadu dialect in the capital, the Yuan Dynasty in China formulated phonology based on the phonology of the Central Plains. In this way, "Guang Yun" lost its status as a standard sound. In addition, the dialects in northern China are more inclined to Dadu dialect.
tomorrow
The nearly one hundred years' rule of the Yuan Dynasty has greatly changed the traditional rites and music customs, language and culture of the Han nationality. Therefore, in the second year of Ming Taizu's accession to the throne (1369), taking the Tang and Song Dynasties as a model, he restored the imperial examination system and established Confucianism. After the Ming Dynasty, due to the phonetic evolution, great changes have taken place in Chinese in northern China. For example, the Mongolian rhyme compiled in Yuan Dynasty has only fifteen rhymes, which has lost the characteristics of traditional Chinese. However, the pronunciation at that time was far from the 206 phonology in Tang and Song Dynasties, and Ming Taizu mistakenly thought that Guang Yun in Song Dynasty came from Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. So in the eighth year of the throne, Zhu Yuanzhang ordered Yue and Song Lian to compile Hongwu Zheng Yun as an official rhyme book with reference to the phonology of the Central Plains in ancient books and the Nanjing dialect at that time. "Ming history? Le Shao Feng's Biography:? In eight years, the emperor left Jiangzuo with an old rhyme, and many people lost their right. He ordered the courtiers to consult the Central Plains, and the book was finished, named Hongwu Zheng Yun? . So Nanjing dialect is also one of the representatives of Putonghua. Unfortunately, "Wu Hong Zheng Yun" has not been popularized.
Ching Dynasty
Chinese standard language has a long history, and there are concepts such as appealing to both refined and popular tastes. However, the modern Chinese standard language is inherited from the language that began in the Northern Song Dynasty and formed in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties? Mandarin? System. When Manchu entered the Central Plains, although Manchu was regarded as the national language, Chinese was actually spoken all over the country, and most China officials in the Ming Dynasty spoke Mandarin. Therefore, the official language of the Qing officialdom is actually bilingual. After Manchu entered Beijing, they learned Mandarin Chinese and brought their own Manchu phonology, pronunciation habits and characteristic cultural vocabulary into their own Manchu Chinese. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, they merged Manchu and Chinese language elements to form Manchu dialect, which became the predecessor of modern standard Beijing dialect. The tone of Beiping Yinyun is four tones, namely, flat, rising and falling, and there is no entering tone.
Beijing dialect in Qing dynasty is the product of the combination of these two aspects. Beijing's voice has improved, influenced by Northeast dialect. In addition, many dialects come from the northeast dialect. There are two kinds of Beijing dialect in Qing dynasty: white reading and white reading. Literary reading is an old standard pronunciation, which is close to Nanjing dialect and is widely used by scholars. But in the late Qing dynasty, it was basically lost, leaving only reading in vain. In the middle of the Qing Dynasty, with the heavy dependence on Han officials and in order to improve office efficiency, all courtiers in the Qing Dynasty switched to Beijing dialect. Manchu was still the national language, but it was no longer the official language. 1728, Yong Zhengdi confirmed Beijing Mandarin as the official language, which was the first time in the history of China that the government led the promotion of standard pronunciation. By the middle and late Qing Dynasty, most areas in the north (including Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, etc. ) Close to the new Mandarin based on Beijing dialect, its influence has surpassed that of Nanjing dialect based on Hongwu and Zheng Yun, and it has become the most popular language in China.
By the end of 19, that is, the end of the Qing Dynasty, the situation in China had undergone great changes, influenced by western academic thoughts, especially the Japanese. Before and after the Meiji Restoration, Japan vigorously promoted Japanese homophony, and the Japanese called Japanese national homophony Mandarin. The word Mandarin was originally the name of a book in ancient China, and the Japanese regarded Mandarin as a national homophonic name. /kloc-At the end of 0/9, great changes have taken place in China's cultural life, and the word Mandarin has spread. 1909, the Qing government called Putonghua the national language. 19 1 1 year, the Ministry of Education of the Qing Dynasty passed the "Unified Mandarin Law", which used Beijing dialect as the national language to replace the original Manchu language, and prepared to increase its promotion. Unfortunately, less than a year after it was put forward, the Qing Dynasty fell.
Republic of China (19 12- 1949)
After the Revolution of 1911, the word Mandarin was recognized by the Beiyang government at that time and became a national homonym. However, the downfall of the Qing Dynasty made the standard pronunciation status of Beijing Mandarin widely questioned. So there were two arguments about Mandarin in the early years of the Republic of China.
19 12 12 In February, the Ministry of Education, headed by Cai Yuanpei, set up the preparatory office for the unified speech conference, with Wu Jingheng as the director, and formulated eight articles of association for the unified speech conference. It is stipulated that the responsibility of the phonetic unification association is to examine and approve the standard pronunciation of each word. What is this called? Guoyin? . After the phoneme of each word is determined, each phoneme should be formulated with the corresponding letter.
Wang Zhao (? Mandarin chorus letters? The inventor is very dissatisfied with the members, pointing out that there are as many as 25 people in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, including 5 in Wuxi. After a heated debate, it was finally decided to implement the "one province, one vote" system instead of "one person, one vote". At that time, the debate about the one-vote system in a province was also fierce. Wang Rongbao of Jiangsu claimed? If we save one vote, all the ancient books in China will be wasted. ? Wang Zhao asked:? How do you explain this? Wang Yuyu and Wang Zhao then asked: Are there no scholars outside Jiangsu and Zhejiang? The Northern Committee insisted on one vote for each province and threatened to dissolve and withdraw from the meeting if it was not passed. Finally, under the impetus of Dong Hongwei, Acting Minister of the Ministry of Education, the "one province, one vote" system was finally passed. This system of one province and one vote is the key to interpret the results of the meeting. The Association selected a number of commonly used Chinese characters from Li Guangdi's Interpretation of Phonology in Qing Dynasty, and each character was decided by one vote and a majority vote in each province. 19 13, checked the pronunciation of more than 6500 Chinese characters, that's right. Vulgar? More than 600 Chinese characters, chemical neologisms, weights and measures transliteration words, etc. , also approved pronunciation. The pronunciation of Chinese characters examined in this way is phonetic with the newly formulated phonetic symbols at that time, which is called? Guoyin? .
The National Music Unification Conference finally closed on May 22nd. Wu Jingheng, the speaker of the congress, resigned on April 22nd due to the fierce argument during the congress. Wang Zhao, who took over, took sick leave after May 7th, and wang pu, Zhili, temporarily presided over the congress. At that time, the competition for voiced sound and entering tone was particularly fierce. Wang Rongbao, a representative of Jiangsu, exaggeratedly said: Southerners can't live without voiced sound and entering tone. ? Wu Jingheng, who is also a representative of Jiangsu and a spokesman for the conference, also made a surprising statement: the words spoken are magnificent, which is the vitality of China. German has many voiced words, so it is strong; We are weak in Mandarin because we don't need voiced sounds. . During the meeting, the disputed pronunciation was decided by a majority vote according to the principle of one province, one vote? Guoyin? . Generally speaking, the final result is mainly Beijing accent. Foundation? At the same time, it absorbs the phonetic features of other dialects (mainly Nanjing dialect), such as distinguishing sharp group sounds and retaining entering tones. The pronunciation of Chinese characters adopted at this meeting is called by later generations? Lao Guo drink? . Implemented from 19 18. 19 18 Qian published "China's future writing problems", calling for? Is it necessary to abolish Confucius and Chinese? The idea of replacing Chinese characters with mandarin Roman characters is put forward. 1923 In the first volume of Mandarin Monthly, Qian published a long article "Chinese Character Revolution:? I dare to declare boldly that if Chinese characters are not revolutionary, education will never be popularized, national languages will never be unified, literature in national languages will never develop, and new truths, new knowledge and new knowledge shared by people all over the world will never be written in national languages conveniently and freely. Why? Because Chinese characters are difficult to recognize, remember and write; Because blunt Chinese characters are not enough to express lively Mandarin; Because Chinese characters are not a sharp tool to express pronunciation; Because there are Chinese characters, it is difficult to input the original words of new learning and new theory into Mandarin. . Then, a large number of intellectuals who had studied abroad, such as Cai Yuanpei, li jinxi, Zhao Yuanren, Lin Yutang, Zhou Jianming, Xu Xiwu and others, published articles on the romanization of Chinese characters, and put forward a plan for romanization, which set off a wave? Mandarin Roman movement? Wave. The so-called national Roman character means that 26 Latin letters are used to represent the sound, rhyme and tone of Chinese. But this is not an easy thing. Lao Guo drink? The complex phonetic components have become its biggest obstacle. Therefore, scholars who advocate the national language Roman characters demand to simplify the pronunciation and modify and remove the national sound on the basis of the relatively simple Beijing sound. Lao Guo drink? Pronunciation components such as sharp sound and entering tone.
1920 Less than two years after the implementation of Putonghua, an outbreak called? The Battle between Beijing and China? (referring to Beijing sound and national sound). The cause of the problem lies in the standard pronunciation of Putonghua. Those who support the national voice and those who support mute are divided into two factions. Is the national voice the main one? Give priority to Beijing dialect and give consideration to north and south? . Mute, right? Take Beijing dialect as the standard? . The quarrel between the two factions is very fierce. So Zhang Shiyi published an article and advocated? Should phonetic symbols and national sounds be fundamentally reformed? , should? 1. The Ministry of Education announced the definition of standard language that conforms to academic principles, and took the words of Beijing natives with at least secondary education as the standard of national common language? . This idea has been supported by many people, especially in the south, which has aroused strong repercussions. They have held meetings to respond, and even passed a resolution: Do not recognize the national sound, and advocate Beijing sound as the standard sound? ,? Please ask the Ministry of Education to solicit opinions from all sides and take Beijing pronunciation as the standard pronunciation? . 1920,? Preparatory meeting for the unification of Putonghua? Held a meeting in Beijing, passed the proposal of "the method of unifying the national language" put forward by Ma Yuzao, Zhou Zuoren, Qian Qian and Hu Shi, and the third item was? Since the unification of Putonghua begins in primary schools, we should take all kinds of textbooks used in primary schools as the base camp for spreading Putonghua, among which Chinese is particularly important? . The National Education Federation and the primary schools affiliated to the Jiangsu Teachers' Federation have successively made resolutions to make Beiping dialect the standard pronunciation. National Phonetic Dictionary Revision Committee? Established the voice of the country? Take Beiping sound as the standard sound? , that is? Voice of the new nation? And began to promote it in schools across the country. 192 1 year, China phonograph and Mandarin phonograph were released one after another, which set the tone for China phonograph. The phonograph "The Voice of China Nationalities" was pronounced by wang pu in Shanghai, and the tone of Yin and Yang followed that of Beijing. The tone was short but not urgent, imitating that of Beijing. The phonograph of Putonghua is the pronunciation of Zhao Yuanren in the United States, which is produced and distributed by Shanghai Commercial Press. The tone of Yin and Yang is Beijing tone, and the tone of entering tone is standard Nanjing tone.
Hu Shi taught the history of Mandarin literature in the Third Mandarin Workshop of the Ministry of Education, Nankai School, Nankai University and the Fourth Mandarin Workshop of the Ministry of Education. 1927 In April, Beijing Cultural Society published the History of Chinese Literature based on Nankai mimeographed handouts. Hu Shi said? I think China should have pinyin characters in the future. However, there are too many monosyllables in classical Chinese, so it must not be changed into pinyin. So we should use vernacular Chinese instead of classical Chinese, and then turn vernacular Chinese into pinyin characters? . On the Literary Revolution of Construction written by Hu Shi 19 18 attributed the goal of the literary revolution to? Literature in a national language, the national language of literature? Ten characters and explain:? The literary revolution we advocate is only to create a national language literature for China. Literature in a national language is the only literature in a national language. With the national language of literature, our national language can be regarded as a real national language. Without literature, Mandarin has no life, no value, no establishment and no development. The really effective and powerful Putonghua textbooks are the literature of Putonghua, that is, novels and scripts of poems in Putonghua. ? The national language used in China's future new literature will be the standard national language in the future. In other words, the only way for us to start is to create literature in vernacular Chinese. When the true beauty of vernacular literature is recognized by the society, the standard Mandarin is naturally established. ? Order No.8 of the Ministry of Education, a textbook for ordinary primary schools? It is advisable to adopt common style, avoid using vernacular, and pay attention to grammatical procedures. ? The Chinese Department of Peking University takes the essays of Hu Shi, Zhou Zuoren and Yu Pingbo and the poems of Xu Zhimo as teaching materials, which greatly promotes the New Literature Movement. After the May 4th Movement, the literary revolution and the Mandarin movement surged, and the Ministry of Education in Beijing also strongly advocated Mandarin, and the vernacular Chinese completely occupied the position of primary education.
1924, Beijing Provisional Government was established, with Zhang as Chief Justice and Minister of Education, who opposed the Mandarin Movement and New Literature, and formed a momentum of attacking the Mandarin Movement and New Literature Movement with the faction centered on Nanjing Southeast University. Qian student Wei published an article "Down with the Obstacles of Mandarin Movement" in Mandarin Weekly. It is suggested that the money be used in 1928? Would you please organize the Committee to supplement and revise the National Phonetic Dictionary? . 12 July, the Preparatory Committee for the Unification of Putonghua was established? National Phonetic Dictionary Revision Committee? Wang pu, Qian, Wang Yi, Bai Zhenying, etc. He was a member of the drafting team, and revised the Guoyin Dictionary word by word, which was officially replaced by the Common Vocabulary of Guoyin in Beiping Dialect. Later 19 13? Pronunciation unification meeting It is suggested that the national sound be changed to Beijing sound. 1932, The Glossary of Common National Phonetics compiled according to New National Phonetics was published by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. In the preface of the glossary, the meaning of the national pronunciation based on Beijing is further explained, that is, what is the so-called standard pronunciation of modern Peiping? Modern Peiping phonology? In what way? Don't respect the local accent every word? . 1935, the Preparatory Committee for the Unification of Putonghua was reorganized into the National Committee for the Promotion of Languages and Characters, and the comprehensive popularization and promotion of Putonghua education began. After 1932, all Putonghua broadcasts adopt the standard form of "General Glossary of Guoyin". From 65438 to 0937, China's first modern Chinese dictionary, Mandarin Dictionary, was edited by Yu and Qian and published by China Dictionary Compilation Office.
? Mandarin? This word appeared as early as the late Qing Dynasty. 1902, Wu Rulun, a scholar, visited Japan, and the Japanese suggested to him that China should carry out Putonghua education to unify the language. Mentioned in the conversation? Mandarin? This name. 1904, Qiu Jin, a modern female revolutionary, organized a seminar for students studying in Japan. Speech liaison meeting? Drafted a pamphlet and appeared in it? Mandarin? The name of. 1906, Zhu, a scholar who studies word segmentation, divided Chinese into? China? (classical Chinese), Mandarin? And then what? As the saying goes? (dialect), he not only put forward? Mandarin? This name, and clearly with? Mandarin? Definition:? If the provinces pass. ? Later, Qu Qiubai and others also put forward? Mandarin? In 1930s, Qu Qiubai put forward in the article "War beyond the Gate of Hell". The task of literary revolution is by no means limited to creating some new poems, novels and plays. It should establish a modern Mandarin accent for China. Modern Putonghua, a new Chinese language, should be used in all parts of China. Modern? People talk? Yes, polysyllabic, with an ending? And argue with Mao Dun about the actual meaning of Putonghua. Classic? May 4th Movement? Since the vernacular movement, catchword movement and Mandarin movement, the status of Beijing phonetics has been established and consolidated.
Ye is the principal of the primary school, who presided over the compilation of teaching materials in 1949? Mandarin? Some have been renamed? China? .
1950 "provisional standards for Chinese curriculum in primary schools (draft)" stipulates: The so-called language should be Putonghua based on Beijing phonology, which is a style written according to Putonghua. The language used in the interpretation is still Mandarin, which is based on Beijing phonology, not dialect. ? "Draft of Primary School Chinese Teaching Syllabus" and "Draft of Primary School Chinese Teaching Syllabus" once again emphasize that the language to be taught to children must be standardized Chinese. This language is Mandarin with Beijing accent as the standard, northern dialect as the basic dialect, and typical modern vernacular as the grammatical norm. Popularizing Putonghua is an important task of Chinese subject in primary schools. The first is the sound of words. This first requires teaching according to the pronunciation of Putonghua; Special attention should be paid to the phonetic work in dialect areas. ?
1950 In August, the State Publishing Administration established Xinhua Dictionary Society and began to compile Xinhua Dictionary, which was edited by Qian student and director of the Chinese Department of Peking University. The phonetic notation system of Xinhua Dictionary published by 1953 is the same as that of Guoyin Dictionary, and it pays more attention to oral pronunciation than Guoyin Dictionary in terms of literary and colloquial reading.
Held in June 1955? National conference on text reform? And then what? Academic conference on standardization of modern Chinese? During this period, the official name of Chinese homophonic was officially defined as? Mandarin? At the same time, determine its definition, namely? Dialect based on Beijing pronunciation and northern dialect? . 1October 26th, 1955, 10, People's Daily published an editorial entitled "Strive to Promote the Reform of Chinese Characters, Popularize Putonghua, and Realize the Standardization of Chinese", in which it was mentioned that Chinese * * * is the same language, that is, Putonghua with northern dialect as the basic dialect and Beijing accent as the standard pronunciation? .
1955165438+1On 4 October, the General Political Department of the People's Liberation Army of China issued the Notice on Promoting Simplification of Chinese Characters, Popularizing Putonghua and Realizing Language Standardization in the Army. 1955165438+1October 17 The Ministry of Education issued the Instruction of People's Republic of China (PRC) Ministry of Education on Vigorously Promoting Putonghua in Primary and Secondary Schools and Normal Schools at All Levels.
1956 On February 6th, the State Council established the Central Working Committee for Promoting Putonghua, issued instructions for promoting Putonghua, and supplemented the definition of Putonghua: Beijing pronunciation is the standard pronunciation, northern dialect is the basic dialect, and typical modern vernacular works are grammatical norms. ? This definition defines the standard of Putonghua from three aspects: pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. ? Mandarin? The word began to be widely used and had a clear connotation. ? Mandarin? Are you online? Ordinary? What did you say? Almighty? And then what? * * * Yes? Not using Putonghua means showing respect for minority languages.
1956 set up the putonghua phonetic examination Committee. It took eight years to compile the first draft of "Phonetic Checklist of Different Pronunciation Words in Putonghua". Continue to do three series? , 1963 merged into the first draft of "Pronunciation Checklist of Different Pronunciation Words in Putonghua", which laid the foundation for the standardization of Putonghua pronunciation.
1978, Modern Chinese Dictionary was officially published by the Commercial Press. Together with Xinhua Dictionary, it is the most authoritative reference book for modern Chinese after Mandarin Dictionary in 1930s.
1982, Lv Shuxiang called for the promotion of Putonghua in People's Daily, and put forward? All schools should be places to promote Putonghua? 、? Primary school is the focus of promoting Putonghua? . 199 1 The Outline of People's Republic of China (PRC)'s Ten-year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Eighth Five-year Plan adopted at the Fourth Session of the Seventh National People's Congress also clearly stated that Putonghua should be vigorously promoted? . 1990 The State Language Committee has made it clear that Guangdong, Fujian and Shanghai are the key areas for promoting Putonghua in southern dialect areas. 199 1 year, a special investigation team was sent to some areas of Guangdong and Fujian to conduct a more in-depth investigation and study, and suggestions were put forward for popularizing Putonghua in the two provinces. In 200 1 year, the "People's Republic of China (PRC) Common Language and Characters Law" was implemented, and Putonghua was established. National common language? Legal status, regulations? Schools and other educational institutions teach Putonghua and standardize Chinese characters through Chinese courses. Radio and TV stations use Putonghua as the basic broadcasting language? .
From 65438 to 0982, the China Language Reform Commission reorganized and established the Putonghua Phonetic Examination Committee, and conducted the second Putonghua Phonetic Examination. On the basis of the first draft of the summary table, a Putonghua phonetic checklist with different pronunciation words is formed. This form 1985 12 was jointly issued by the State Language Commission, the State Education Commission and the Ministry of Radio and Television. It is the current national standard of Putonghua pronunciation and the basic basis for popularizing Putonghua.
20111kloc-0/On October 28th, the State Language Committee established a new Putonghua Audition Committee.