2. It has promoted the development of world culture, promoted people's awakening, and made necessary ideological and cultural preparations for the development of capitalism.
I mobilized and prepared for the bourgeois revolution. Primitive accumulation of capital: Renaissance, as an ideological liberation movement to promote the emerging bourgeois culture, laid a solid foundation for the budding development of early capitalism in the process of communication, and also accumulated primitive wealth for the early bourgeoisie. The Renaissance originated in Italy, and then spread from the Mediterranean coast to the Atlantic coast, resulting in a series of new cities such as Rome, Florence, Venice and the Netherlands. Capitalist industry and commerce began to prosper, and capital began to flow into the pockets of the emerging bourgeoisie, which provided the necessary conditions for the simultaneous opening of new routes, religious reform and future bourgeois revolution or reform.
Exploration and discovery of human nature: The Renaissance liberated people from the shackles of traditional feudal theology, and people began to explore human values under the cloak of religion. As human beings, this new concrete existence is not a new era of personal and spiritual attachment of feudal lords and religious lords. Renaissance fully affirmed human value and attached importance to human nature, which became a powerful call for people to break through the veil of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance had a great influence on the political, scientific, economic, philosophical and theological world outlook at that time. It is a revolutionary storm in the field of emerging bourgeois ideology, also known as the "giant era".
Negative effects: The Renaissance overemphasized the value of human beings in the process of communication, which led to the expansion of personal desires, material enjoyment and extravagance and waste in the later stage of communication, resulting in a series of negative effects. literature
Writers all over the world began to use their own dialects instead of Latin for literary creation, which promoted the development of popular literature and injected a large number of literary works into various languages, including novels, poems, essays, folk songs, plays and so on.
In Italy, there were "three outstanding literary figures" in the early Renaissance. Dante wrote many academic works and poems in his life, among which the famous ones are "New Life" and "Divine Comedy". Petrarch is the originator of humanism and is known as the "father of humanism". He was the first to call for the revival of classical culture and put forward the idea that "humanism" opposed "theology". Petrarch mainly wrote many beautiful poems, among which the representative work is Lyric Sonnets. Boccaccio is the founder of Italian national literature, and decameron, a collection of short stories, is his masterpiece.
In France, the Renaissance obviously formed two factions, one is optimates represented by Seven Star Poetry Society, and the other is Democrats represented by rabelais. The Seven Star Poetry Society, represented by Longsha and Du Beilai, has made outstanding contributions to language and poetry theory. They first put forward the idea of unifying national languages, which promoted the development of French national languages and national literature. But they rejected folk poetry and only served a few nobles. Rabelais is an outstanding humanist writer after Boccaccio and a representative of the French Renaissance Democrats. The Biography of the Giant, which he created in 20 years, is a realistic work interwoven with reality and fantasy, and occupies an important position in the history of European literature and education.
In Britain, the representatives are Thomas Moore and Shakespeare. Thomas Moore is a famous humanist thinker and the founder of utopian socialism. 15 16 Utopia, which he wrote in Latin, is the first work of utopian socialism. Shakespeare is a gifted playwright and poet. He, together with Homer, Dante and Goethe, is called the four great European writers. His works, such as Hamlet and King Lear, have complete structure, vivid plots, rich and refined language and outstanding personality, which represent the highest achievement of European Renaissance literature and have a far-reaching impact on the development of European realistic literature.
In Spain, the most outstanding representatives are Cervantes and Vega. Cervantes is a realistic writer, dramatist and poet. He wrote a large number of poems, plays and novels, of which Don Quixote, a long satirical novel, was the most famous, which had a great influence on the development of European literature. Vega is a dramatist, novelist and poet, the founder of Spanish national drama, and is known as the "father of Spanish drama". He is one of the few prolific writers in the world. He wrote more than 2,000 plays in his life, and more than 600 have been handed down to this day. There are religious drama, historical drama, divine drama, robe and sword drama, pastoral drama and other forms, which deeply reflect the social reality of Spain and are deeply loved by the masses. The most outstanding representative work is Yangquan Village.
art
Italian painters in the Renaissance mainly include Giotto di Bondone, Ma Saqiao, paul Uccello, Domingo Quillando, sandro botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Sanzio, Titian Vicelli and Michelangelo.
Giotto di bondone (about1267-1337 65438+10/8) was an Italian painter and architect, known as the pioneer of the Italian Renaissance and the "father of European painting". His representative works include judas kiss, The Last Judgment and Mourning for Christ.
Ma Saqiao (Ma Saqiao,140165438+February 2 1-65438+ autumn 0428) was originally named tommaso kassai. Tommaso di Searle Deiberson Geovanni di Monet Casa was the first great painter in the Italian Renaissance in the15th century. His murals are the earliest milestone of humanism. He was the first painter to use perspective, and introduced vanishing point into painting for the first time. The characters in his paintings appeared in history. His representative works include three paintings: The Altar of Cassia, The Virgin, Santa Anna and the Infant, Donation, Adam Exiled from the Garden of Eden and Holy Trinity.
Paolo Uccello (1397-14751210), formerly known as Paolo di Dono, is an Italian painter who is famous for his pioneering artistic perspective. His masterpiece has three sets of oil paintings depicting the Battle of San Romano.
Domenico ghirlandaio (1449-1494 65438+1October 1 1) was an Italian Renaissance painter, and Michelangelo was his apprentice.
Sandro botticelli (1445 March1-/Kloc-0 May 17), formerly known as Alessandro Filippi, was a Florentine painter in the early European Renaissance. His masterpieces include Three Doctors Come to Korea, Spring, Ode to Our Lady, Venus and Mars, The Birth of Venus, The Messenger of Our Lady, Slander, The Mysterious Birth of Christ, pallas and Ken Taulos.
Rafael Sanzio (1April 6, 483-1April 6, 520) is an Italian painter. His masterpieces include The Academy of Athens, The Virgin Mary, The Victory of Galatia, St George vs Dragon, The Virgin and the Son, Notre Dame de Connors, Notre Dame de Alba, The Virgin of the Chair, The Sistine Madonna, The Unsolved Cross of Christ, Fables and Portraits of Gentlemen.
Tiziano Veseli (about1477-1August 27th, 576) was a great Italian painter in the late Renaissance and a representative of the Venetian school.
Michelangelo (1475 March 6th-1564 February 18), full name Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simone, 1438. His representative works include the zenith painting of Genesis in the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, the mural The Last Judgment, the oil painting Burying, The Madonna, The Saga Familia and St. John.
music
The classical music works of the Renaissance were mainly produced from 1400 to 1600. The end of this period is more definite than the beginning, unlike other art categories. From 65438 to the beginning of the 5th century, there was no obvious change in musical performance, and it can be said that the musical characteristics of the Renaissance were gradually changing.
To be sure, the music works in the early Renaissance mainly relied on the third interval as the chord. Polyphonic music, which began in the12nd century, became more detailed throughout the14th century, independent of sound expression. /kloc-The music in the early 5th century tends to be simple and the sound is smooth.
By the end of 15, polyphonic religious music began to become complicated again, which was related to the extremely developed paintings at that time in a sense. Then in the early16th century, music began to simplify again.
In the late16th century, music, especially minor, tended to be more complex and chromatic. At this time in Florence, musicians began to turn to the classical school, trying to restore the dreamy music form of ancient Greece through poetry.
astronomy
1543, the polish astronomer Copernicus published the theory of celestial bodies, in which he proposed a Heliocentrism system different from Ptolemaic geocentric theory. Bruno, an Italian thinker, declared in his works "On Infinity, Universe and World" and "On Cause, Origin and Unity" that the universe is infinite in space and time, and the sun is only the solar system, not the center of the universe. Galileo invented the astronomical telescope in 1609, published the Star Messenger in 16 10, and published the Dialogue between Ptolemy and Copernicus in 1632. Kepler, a German astronomer, put forward three laws of planetary motion in New Astronomy (1609) and Harmony of the World (16 19) by studying the observation data of Tycho, a Danish astronomer, and determined that the planetary motion around the sun along an elliptical orbit is not constant.
mathematics
Algebra made great progress in the Renaissance, and the solutions of cubic and quartic equations were found. Cardano, an Italian, published a formula for finding the roots of cubic equations in his book Great Skills, but the discovery of this formula should be attributed to another scholar, Tattaglia. The solution of the quartic equation was discovered by Ferrari, a student in cardano, and also recorded in The Great Book. Bombelli expounded the irreducibility of cubic equations in his works, used imaginary numbers, and improved the popular algebraic symbols at that time. Symbolic algebra was founded by the French mathematician Veda in the16th century. He published "Introduction to Analytical Methods" at 159 1, systematically arranged algebra, and for the first time consciously used letters to represent unknowns and known numbers. In his other book, On the Identification and Correction of Equations, David improved the solutions of cubic and quartic equations, and established the relationship between the roots and coefficients of quadratic and cubic equations, which is known as Vieta's theorem in modern times. Trigonometry also made great progress during the Renaissance. On Triangle, written by German mathematician Reggio Montanus, is the first trigonometry work independent of astronomy in Europe. The book systematically expounds the plane triangle and spherical triangle, as well as a very accurate trigonometric function table. On the basis of redefining trigonometric function, Rhaticus, a student of Copernicus, made a more accurate trigonometric function table. After the French Descartes established the coordinate system in 1637, he successfully founded analytic geometry. Fermat founded tangent method, maximum method, minimum method and definite integral method, which made great contributions to calculus. It limits the study of indefinite equations to the range of integers, thus creating a mathematical branch of number theory. In the interaction and work with Pascal, the basic principle of probability theory-the concept of mathematical expectation was established.
physics
In physics, Galileo discovered three laws of free falling, throwing objects and shaking through many experiments, which made people have a new understanding of the universe. His student Torricelli proved the air pressure through experiments and invented the mercury barometer. Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the law of pressure propagation in liquids and gases. British scientist Boyle discovered the law of gas pressure. Descartes used his coordinate geometry to engage in optical research, and put forward the theoretical derivation of refraction law for the first time in Refractive Optics. He also clearly put forward the law of conservation of momentum for the first time: the total amount of matter and motion will never change. Descartes made a preliminary study on collision and centrifugal force, which created conditions for Huygens' success later.
Physiology and medicine
Belgian doctor Vesaliua Uss published the book Human Body Structure, which challenged Galen's "Trinity" theory. Spanish doctor Servit discovered the small circulation system of blood, which proved that blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs and reaches the left ventricle through a tortuous route. Harvey, a British anatomist, published the theory of heart-blood movement through a large number of animal anatomy experiments, which systematically explained the law of blood movement and the working principle of the heart. He pointed out that the heart is the center of blood movement and the source of strength. This great discovery made him the founder of modern physiology.
geography
There has been a revolutionary leap in navigation technology, and explorers from Portugal, Spain and Italy have started a series of long-distance navigation activities. The geographical discoveries of Columbus and Magellan provide strong evidence for the theory of the earth circle.
The rediscovery of printing in Europe and the spread of papermaking, compass and gunpowder (the four great inventions of China) from the East promoted the rapid spread of scientific ideas.
build
Renaissance architecture is an architectural style that was born in Italy in the14th century with the cultural movement of Renaissance. Based on the criticism of the supremacy of theocracy in the Middle Ages and the affirmation of humanitarianism, architects hope to reshape the harmonious order of the ideal classical society with the help of classical proportions. Therefore, generally speaking, Renaissance architecture pays attention to order and proportion, with strict facade and plane composition and column system inherited from classical architecture. There is a strong pursuit of the proportion of architecture, such as symmetrical modeling with multiples of 3 and 2, centralized restoration of "nature", drawing with a ruler, and opposing Gothic architecture dominated by circles and squares.
psychology
After the Renaissance,17th century, psychology, which was originally forgotten, continued to develop. 19th century (1879), Feng Te, the "father of modern psychology", founded psychology. Since then, psychology has developed into an independent discipline. The essence of Renaissance: The original meaning of the word "Renaissance" refers to "the regeneration of classical Greek and Roman culture". However, the cultural revolution movement of the emerging bourgeoisie in western European countries at that time included a series of major historical events, including the rise of "humanism", the renewal of artistic style, the emergence of utopian socialism, the beginning of modern natural science development, the application of printing and the dissemination of scientific and cultural knowledge. This series of major events is not so much "the rebirth of classical culture" as "the beginning of modern culture"; It is not so much "revival" as "innovation". The Renaissance marked a great turning point in the history of human civilization. It is a new culture, a reflection of the new political and economic requirements of the society at that time, and an anti-feudal struggle of the emerging bourgeoisie in the ideological and cultural field. Simply put, the essence of the Renaissance is the bourgeois ideological emancipation movement.
The core idea of the Renaissance is humanism. Humanism originated in Italy in the second half of the14th century, and then spread throughout western Europe. Humanists use "humanity" to oppose "divinity" and "human rights" to oppose "theocracy". They put forward the slogan "I am a human being, and I am everywhere in all human characteristics". They are very dissatisfied with the church's control over the spiritual world. They demand that man is the center, not God. They praise human wisdom and strength, praise the perfection and loftiness of human nature, oppose religious autocratic rule and feudal hierarchy, advocate individual liberation, equality and freedom, advocate individual development, demand secular happiness and human joy, and advocate scientific and cultural knowledge. Therefore, the concept of humanism focuses on "human", which is the exertion of "human instinct" and the driving force for "human" to pursue truth, goodness and beauty.
The historical role of the Renaissance: Engels once spoke highly of the progressive role of the Renaissance in history. He wrote: "This is the greatest and most progressive change that mankind has never experienced. It is an era that needs giants and produces giants-giants in terms of thinking ability, enthusiasm and personality, versatility and erudition. " Giants refer to the three Renaissance masters: Da Vinci, Shakespeare and Dante.
First of all, it is human discovery. In the Middle Ages, the ideal man should be inferior, passive and inactive, and his significance in the world is not commendable. Renaissance discovered man and his greatness, affirmed his value and creativity, and put forward that man should be liberated and his personality should be free. (1) attaches great importance to people's value, requires giving full play to people's intelligence and creative potential, opposes a passive attitude towards life, and advocates a positive and adventurous spirit. (2) Pay attention to the worldly life and despise the illusory myth about the afterlife or heaven, so as to pursue material happiness and sensory satisfaction and oppose religious asceticism. In literature and art, people's feelings are required to be expressed and hypocrisy is opposed. Such as: Petrarch's Song Collection, Boccaccio's decameron. (3) Attach importance to scientific experiments and oppose apriorism; Emphasize the use of human reason and oppose blind obedience; Require the development of personality and oppose the imprisonment of human nature; In terms of moral concept, it requires indulgence and opposes self-restraint; Advocate "civic morality" and think that success and wealth are moral behaviors. (4) Advocating an optimistic attitude towards life. These irresistible thirst for knowledge, the spirit of getting to the bottom of the matter, and the optimistic enterprising spirit of striving to create secular happiness liberated people from the shackles of Christian theology in the Middle Ages. It was in this spirit that the bourgeoisie created the modern capitalist world.
Secondly, the Renaissance broke the situation that religious mysticism dominated the whole country, effectively promoted and influenced the religious reform movement, and provided an important boost for this movement. Renaissance advocated attaching importance to secular life and opposing authority, which aroused contemporary people's doubts and antipathy to the Catholic Church and theology. Renaissance humanists satirized and exposed the corruption and ugliness of the Catholic church through literature, art and other forms.
Thirdly, the Renaissance broke the unification of scholasticism with theology as the core, cleared the way for ideological liberation and progress in the future, and made various secular philosophies rise. Among them is British empirical materialism (Bacon). It also promoted the development of political theory, Machiavelli laid the foundation for the later Enlightenment, and a large number of thinkers such as Hobbes and Locke developed theories such as "natural rights", "social contract", "people's sovereignty" and "separation of powers".
Fourth, the feudal privilege was denied. In the Middle Ages, feudal privileges were granted and the concept of family status was deeply rooted. Renaissance made these things lose the weight of the measure of people in the past. People's nobility has been given a new connotation. Petrarch said: "True nobility is not innate, but self-made." In the social life of Italy at that time, talent, means and money replaced birth, and everyone from any birth climbed the high-level ladder of society.
Fifth, get rid of superstition and emancipate the mind. The Renaissance restored rationality, dignity and the value of thinking. Although the Renaissance achieved little in philosophy, it destroyed the rigid scholasticism system, advocated scientific methods and experiments, and put forward that "knowledge is power", which created a new atmosphere for exploring people and the real world. People firmly believe in their eyes and brains, and believe that experiments and experience are reliable sources of knowledge. This realistic attitude, way of thinking and scientific method laid a solid foundation for the great development of natural science from 17 to 19 century.
Sixth, during the Renaissance, a large number of charming and exquisite works of art and literary masterpieces were created, which became priceless treasures in the treasure house of human art. The medieval biblical legends flooded the art world, suffocating the life of art. The Renaissance not only turned the Virgin Mary into a human woman (Raphael), but also turned the image into a tribute to the human body, and began a direct description of daily life and real people. Anatomy, perspective and other sciences are also combined with art for the first time. Modern realistic art in western Europe began at that time.
This extensive and lasting ideological and cultural movement broke through the shackles of feudal autocracy and religious theology in the ideological field, liberated people's minds, promoted the prosperity of European cultural and ideological fields, and laid the ideological and cultural foundation for the emergence of European capitalist society.