Syntax refers to the method of making sentences, including sentence rhythm, structure, grammar, rhetoric and meaning compound. There are many syntaxes put forward by predecessors, so this lecture only chooses the important introduction, and omits what is mentioned elsewhere.
1. directive sentence
That is, in the tone, there is an indication. For example, Wuzhuanglian at the south foot of Beijing:
Where there is no bright moon and cool breeze, it is half rural and half village green;
Here, there are many forests and bamboos, and it is perfect to paint Xie Qingshan with poetry.
Pei Lvye, Du has a villa Lvye Hall in Luoyang. Xie Qingshan, a poet from Southern Qi Dynasty, Xie Tiao built a building at the foot of Lingyang Mountain in Yicheng. The first part of the couplet says that the owners of five villages are half urban and half rural, like Qingtian Hall in Peidu. The second part says that the mountains here are beautiful, suitable for literati like Xie Tiao to paint poems. Both the upper and lower couplets have the meaning of instructions.
2. Coherent sentences
Also known as straight sentences, that is, the semantic momentum of the upper and lower couplet has always been straight down and cannot be interrupted. Equivalent to running water. Such as Fan Wenlan's self-encouragement association:
The bench should be cool for ten years;
Don't write an empty sentence in the article.
3. Parent-child sentence
That is, an important word in the joint sentence is like mother, and there are several words produced by it like son below. For example:
Cicada sings intermittently;
Butterflies dance up and down.
Cicada Qin and Butterfly Beat are the mother, while singing interval and dancing level are the sons. Grammatically, this is a subject-predicate sentence; Rhetorically, it is a descriptive sentence.
4. Subtotal sentences
In other words, the content will be described side by side first and then summarized. For example, Spring Festival couplets:
Pine, bamboo and plum, three old and cold friends;
Peach, plum, apricot, spring breeze family.
5. Total number of sentences
That is, summarize the content first, and then describe it side by side. For example, in the ninth lecture, when talking about echo, I cited Sun Yat-sen's couplet: "Two languages match fate, Confucius says great harmony, and Ye says universal love; The three masters stand side by side, printed with Gandhi and printed with Lenin's Russia. " Another example is a couplet that Su Shi is said to be right:
Sunlight, moon and stars;
Four poems, elegant and smart.
In the Book of Songs, elegance is divided into elegance and grace, also known as the four books of ode to the wind. This is a coincidence. It is still a subject-predicate sentence, with "three lights" and "four poems" as the subject, and the verb "yes" is omitted after it.
6. Echo sentences
In a sentence, the superordinate call should be, for example:
The wind turns white and the waves are thousands;
The geese point to the sky.
The shape of "the wind turns white waves" is "a hundred flowers blossom", and the latter describes the former. In the same way, "word line" is used to describe "goose plucking".
Generally speaking, there are more ellipsis sentences in classical Chinese than in vernacular Chinese, and more ellipsis poems and ellipsis couplets in classical Chinese than in classical Chinese. Ellipsis makes more meanings contained and expressed in limited words. Ellipsis makes the text concise and has a special style. When writing couplets, you must pay attention to ellipsis.
The "sentence-saving" of couplet syntax mentioned by predecessors means ellipsis and unowned sentences, generally omitting the subject. In fact, there are many omissions.
1. Omit the topic
The theme is very clear, and everyone who doesn't write knows it; Or not clear enough, but don't need to write. If grace gave Lin, then:
() If politics is a true book, it will be perfect;
() Love the people like children, and have a subtle experience.
The subject "Gong Lin" is omitted here.
Another example is the couplet studied by Bao Qing Chen Shi:
() I like to have two eyes and make more friends;
() I hate not having ten years of leisure and not being able to read wonderful books.
The subject "I" is omitted here.
Another example is Fu Nairuo's inscription hall:
() Brush away poverty and white;
() color printing.
The subject omitted here is uncertain, whether it is "we", "they" or "printing house", and there is no need to specify it. This is a sentence without a subject.
2. Omit the predicate verb
For example, the previous Spring Festival couplets: "Three friends of pine, bamboo, regret and () cold; Peach, plum, apricot, () Feng Chun family. " Omitted "Yes" or "Callable".
Another example is Xu Pengjiu's happy move to a new house:
Before the eaves () peaks and ridges, outside the house () rivers, () Shuishanmen;
There are () poetry books on the bookshelf, () rice in the pile, and () farmers.
The first part omits two "yes" and one "yes". Save "release", "heap" and "can call".
Another example is Yangzhou Slender West Lake Flower Hall Alliance:
For several months, () the ground is full of water;
Yun Qi () is a Tianshan Mountain.
For example, the upper allied provinces, such as the lower allied provinces.
3. Omit prepositions or object-object phrases
Such as Chen Qingbin, such as Guilin Nanxi Mountain Snail Cave Association:
Jiang () Wanli;
Tianzhu inserts () three peaks.
The word order of this conjunction is reversed. Manager Shun, whose ellipsis is: "Wan Li River Crossflow (front); Three peaks (like) Tianzhu inserted (between heaven and earth). " The second couplet omits not only the prepositional phrase, but also the verb "Xiang". This omission, coupled with special arrangements, makes the text concise and magnificent.
Another example is Guiyang Tuyun Association:
Put your feet on the road. (1) When it comes to the crunch, you need to recognize the fork in the road.
() A pavilion overlooking the mountains occupies a high position and naturally catches up with its predecessors.
The upper and lower couplets all save "people are there".
4. Omit the attributive head word
In order to make the sentence structure neat, sometimes only attributes appear in couplets, omitting the head words. For example, Guan Yu's "red rabbit with a long knife" is an attribute, and the central word "horse" behind it is omitted. There is "a handful of dirt" in the article (Luo's biography of Li Shi-chuan, "a handful of dirt" refers to the grave), so we can say "a handful of dirt" in the couplet and omit the central word "dirt". Such as Wuxi Taibo Tomb Trade Union:
Different ambitions, three concessions and two boundaries;
Work and development, a cup of () will stay in Jiangnan forever.
There are also "a bottle of wine", "a glass of wine", "three feet [sword]", "when the wind and rain are gloomy" and "the man in chains"
abbreviate
Because of the need or limitation of battle, sometimes polyphonic words are simplified into disyllabic words. For example, Sima Qian's name is abbreviated as Ma Qian, Li Daoyuan is abbreviated as Liyuan, and Gui Liang's name is abbreviated as Gui Liang.
Because language is established by convention, there are habits and patterns, abbreviations should be acceptable to readers, and it is best to have precedents to follow, so as not to confuse people and regard it as creation. If Zhuge Liang is abbreviated as Ge Liang, wine is abbreviated as Portuguese wine, and the great Chinese nation is abbreviated as Dahua nation, it will not work.
6. Omission of single-word sentences
This is a complicated omission, and it is difficult to determine which components are omitted. A noun phrase is a form of a sentence, and its omission is very complicated. For example, in the Qing Dynasty, Liu was entitled "Association of Little Canglang Garden on Daming Lake:
Four-sided lotus and three-sided willow;
A city with mountains and half a city with lakes.
Fill in the omitted ingredients, which are roughly as follows: "(The Little Canglang Pavilion in Daming Lake) is surrounded by lotus flowers and willows on three sides." : [You can see here] A city with mountains and lakes [light]. "
Another example is the "Tonghua Yang Jingyu Martyrs Cemetery Union" written by Li:
White water and black water;
A loyal heart.
This pair of couplets is highly concentrated and rich in images, which is amazing. It omits many words and even sentences, which can be added as follows: "[General Yang Jingyu led the anti-Japanese soldiers and civilians to fight against the enemy and deal with Baishan Blackwater (between);" He bears hardships and stands hard work, persists in struggle, lives and fights, and he dedicated his life to the country. People respect him very much. ) "
When writing couplets, the word order is sometimes reversed, which is different from ordinary prose, in order to match the level tone, or to highlight something, or to form a certain momentum and style. This kind of sentence is called inverted sentence (formerly known as "inverted sentence"). There are various situations of inversion.
1. Attributive and head inversion
For example, Spring Festival couplets:
A red apricot, singing in Yan language;
Peaches are full of trees, and the weather is beautiful.
The normal word order should be "an apricot" and "a peach blossom", so the quantifiers used for attributive are ranked first, and the head word is ranked last. The inverted sentence here is to coordinate the flat foot of the sentence and conform to the format of "flat, one/one, flat" At the same time, it also emphasizes "red apricot" and "peach", which gives people a bright color and image from the beginning.
Another example is:
Grass is beyond the sunset;
Get out of the water.
It should be "grass outside the sunset; Flowers fall into the water. " This attributive postposition makes couplets unique.
2. The verb-object inversion
The normal word order is that verbs come first, objects come last, and inverted sentences are the opposite. As usual, Chiang to preach inexpensive:
What Lian Jie is most concerned about is the calligraphy that has been kept in the breeze and among the trees for a long time;
There are many human messages, as well as the kindness of the old man and the innocence of the boy.
This couplet is to praise Wei Chuantong for "caring most about the world" and "sending more messages". If you write in this order, it does not meet the standard of flat feet, and it will lose its melancholy charm.
Verb-object inversion sometimes separates the object composed of the attribute and the head word, some before the verb, and some after the verb. For example, He Qing Ou Geng wrote Suzhou Baigong Temple Union:
When it comes to poets in the Tang Dynasty, Du Li only responded with a few new Yuefu poems.
Suzhou cherishes the history of thorns, the songs of lakes and mountains, and the three-acre old ancestral temple still exists.
Friendship is not about poets in the Tang Dynasty, but about poets in the Tang Dynasty. Similarly, it is not Suzhou or Suzhou people who miss the secretariat, but the author and Suzhou people "cherish the secretariat of Suzhou". Bai Juyi once wrote Suzhou secretariat, so the couplet is written like this. Here, the objects are separated, and the "Tang Dynasty" and "Suzhou" are emphasized, which makes the whole couplet somewhat tortuous and avoids straightness.
Another example is Zhang Boju's couplet:
Earth-shaking, the times have reopened a new history;
Unprecedented, people look at the present.
This is "reopening a new historical era" and "looking at the current figures". After separating the objects, it not only emphasizes "times" and "people", but also emphasizes "new historiography" and "modern times", which makes the All-China Federation have an empty momentum.
Chen Yi used Du Fu's poems to write couplets of Du Fu's Caotang in Chengdu.
Song Xin hates thousands of feet;
Evil bamboo should be cut into pieces.
The first part is "I hate Song Xin, but I don't think thousands of feet is too high", and the second part is "I should put an end to all evils". The following couplets also separate the objects and turn some of them upside down.
3. verb inversion
The general word order is that the subject comes first, the predicate comes last, and the inverted sentence is the opposite. For example, Guo Moruo wrote Shaanxi People's Building:
Hey, two or three sons of our party;
There are thousands of buildings.
It should have been "the second and third sons of our party are encouraging;" There are thousands of buildings, which means: we ordinary people should work hard; How magnificent thousands of spacious buildings are! This inverted sentence highlights the words "encourage" and "lofty", which makes the writing a little more turbulent and avoids flat feet.
Another example is Miao Lian of Tang Dynasty:
Kneeling in front of the steps unkempt, think about the prime minister of that year;
The crown is hanging on the seat. Look at today's generals.
Yue Fei was killed in Song Gaozong. When he was filial, he resumed his official position, and later he was loyal to Wu Mu. When he was in charge, he chased the king of Hubei. This couplet depicts Qin Gui, the prime minister at that time, kneeling unkempt on the steps of Yue Temple. The second part is that today, General Yue has put on the king's costume and sat on the throne. Verb inversion makes the beginning and the end of the couplets be unkempt, prime minister, hanging hat and general respectively, which further highlights the embarrassment of the treacherous court official and the solemnity and respect of General Yue.
4. Inverted linkage structure
Two consecutive actions are not in the normal time sequence, but the first action is said, and then the first action is said. For example, "looking at the column vertically" should be to look at the column first and then vertically, but conversely, "looking at the column vertically" is mostly for fair confrontation. Such as Yuelu Palace in Yuelu Mountain, Changsha:
Twenty years ago, when I was studying here, I thought of the sunset in the ancient temple, and I often saw green maple and red leaves approaching the top of the mountain.
Thousands of miles away, poorer, counting the present scene, only the moonlight beach sounds like the past.
According to the normal order, the rhythm of "always looking at the green maple and red leaves" is "22 14", and the rhythm of "24 12" in the sentence "only the moonlight beach sounds like the past" is wrong; On the other hand, "the common green maple leaves are near the top", and the rhythm of the upper and lower sentences is the same, just the opposite.
There are other situations, such as adverbial postposition.
Flexible use of parts of speech is not uncommon in classical Chinese prose. For example, Biographies of Historical Records Lian Po and Biographies of Lin Xiangru: "Shexiang is like Sheguang Cheng", the latter is a noun, and the former is a noun used as a verb. Arrange Lin Xiangru to live in Guangcheng. In couplets, the flexible use of parts of speech is also very common, with different situations.
1. Nouns as verbs and adjectives
For example, Ruan Yuan entitled "West Lake Geling Chaolian:
During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, it was Weng Baopu who passed the book. He forgot his chess career.
Mountains and lakes are thin and turbid, alchemy turns into mercury, and Liu Di Song Dao protects the celestial world.
Ge Hong, a Taoist priest in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, was an alchemist. He wrote Bao Puzi and buried Ge Ling. "Playing chess" is used as a verb here, that is, playing chess and studying. The All-China Federation praised Ge Hong for being aloof from the world, practicing alchemy and being in a fairyland.
Another example is the Spring Festival couplets:
/kloc-going to Jiangshan at the age of 0/8 is not old;
Pine and cypress and Changchun came in.
"Spring", a noun, is used here as an adjective to describe the lush green of pine and cypress, as opposed to the adjective "old".
2. Adjectives as verbs
Ruo Long Fei Tan, South Gate of Yueyang Hsi Chin Park:
Kang Min, Five Blessingg, south wind;
Kites fly and fish jump, and the sun is shining.
Smoked, meaning warm, is used here as a verb: blow warmly. Li, there is no need to "attach" here. Compared with "fumigation", it means to shine brilliantly and is also used as a verb.
Adjectives can be used as verbs in two ways: "causative" and "intentional". The former is "how to make it", such as "craftsmen are big and small", craftsmen
Make the wood smaller. The latter is "What do you think", such as "Climbing Mount Tai to make the world smaller", and I feel that the world has become smaller.
Emperor Kangxi inscribed Suzhou Palace couplets;
Songsheng bamboo rhyme clear piano couch;
Yun Qi Languang Pen Bed
Shanglian said that the sound of pine and bamboo came from all sides, which made people feel that the piano couch was particularly cool and elegant: "Qing" is a conative usage. The second couplet, because the cloud is close at hand, people feel that the pen bed is also wet: "Run" is still a conative usage.
3. Adjectives as nouns
For example, Yu Juan Lou Lian of Shanghai Yuyuan Garden:
Upstairs next door, the curtains are covered with rain, the wind is coming, and I am happy with my good friends for several mornings and evenings;
Send the green spirit into the cave, smell the warbler in the secluded stream, let the crane fly in the pavilion, and don't teach the beautiful scenery to be negative in the spring and autumn.
"Neighboring Bibi" is a rockery near Bibi. "Giving green" means giving green hills. "Bi" and "Qing" are both used as nouns.
Another example is the couplet of the Great Hall of the Forbidden City in Shenyang inscribed by Emperor Qianlong:
Dragon saliva green curl Jin Xianyu;
The flame of the crane is red, and the treasure is blooming.
This couplet depicts the splendor of the palace. Shanglian said that Long Xianxiang's smoke curled up and filled the temple with the golden plaque of "Good luck in Thailand". Secondly, the burning spices churned out red waves in the copper crane furnace, reflecting the beautiful flowers carved between the column walls. "Cui", jade smoke. "Red", red flame. Both are adjectives used as nouns.
Use verbs as nouns
For example, the Tianjin Great Tragedy Association written by Zhenwu in Qing Dynasty:
Zen began with the Zen gate without living, and the land of ten parties is solemn. Where is it?
Fate can cross the world, and if you miss your heart, you can sail here.
"Living by doing nothing" means that things don't stick to their unchanging nature in Buddhist language, and "living" is used as a noun. "Cihang" and "Huihai" are self-correcting, and the verb "Hang" is also used as a noun.
2020-07-3 1 butterfly dance production