[colonial period]
Indian Culture When Europeans discovered the New World, the indigenous Indians in North America were at various stages of the primitive commune system. Indians created their own culture in the struggle with nature, mainly oral and folk creations, including myths and legends and the legend of heroes. Because there were no words, these legends were later compiled and published, which inspired later American writers. Cultural immigrants of early immigrants were busy fighting for survival when they first arrived in the New World, so the development of literature was slow at the beginning. The earliest published works about North America are travel notes and diaries. The authors are all British. After the establishment of the British colony, the rulers took religion, mainly Puritanism, as the main means to control colonial ideology, so many publications were about theology. Famous writers include Cotton Mather (1663- 1728) and Jonathan. Edwards (1703- 1758), etc. With the enhancement of industry, trade and national consciousness, the voice of religious freedom has increased, and the theocracy of consultation has declined, replaced by national independence consciousness such as humanism, freedom and democracy. To create diagnostic songs, the first collection of poems published in North America, The Bay Hymn, is a hymn written in the form of folk songs. Michael Wiggers Voss's poems are all about explaining Calvinism and have become popular religious books. Anne braz Terry, a poetess, also wrote about religious life, but expressed women's feelings in a secular style. Edward tylor, a priest who only published elegies during his lifetime, reflected the decline of strict Puritanism. Among these poets, the influence of Britain is also obvious. Brass Tritt benefited from the influence of John Doss and george herbert on Spencer's and Taylor's poems.
From the Revolution of Independence to the Civil War
American national literature was formed in the revolutionary period. This struggle produced a large number of revolutionary poems and the first batch of important American essayists and poets. Political independence promotes cultural independence. After the war, the works of American writers emerged one after another, and gradually got rid of the monopoly of English literature. Young democracy and republic make people full of confidence and attract more people from the old world to the new world. Such social conditions make the literary creation of1the first half of the 9th century romantic. Writers draw lessons from the spirit of European romantic literature to describe American history, legends and real life, and the content of American nation is gradually enriched and enriched. From the 1920s to the eve of the Civil War, it was the heyday of the Romantic Movement, and writers of different styles flocked out, and their works had distinctive national characteristics from content to form. Critics call this period the "first prosperity" of American literature. By the middle of the century, the tone of romantic literature changed from optimism to doubt, and urgent social contradictions, such as slavery, made some writers adopt realistic creative methods.
[Birth of National Literature]
The revolution of independence is the background of American national literature. Long before the war broke out, the American colonial people had a sense of national independence under the influence of European enlightenment theory. Franklin's secular motto is more attractive to the public than Edwards's puritanism and socialism. Franklin used a clear and humorous style to spread science and culture and inspire the spirit of self-reliance. His patriotic enthusiasm and remarks about self-study and entrepreneurship have had a far-reaching impact on the American people's outlook on life, career and morality. During the independent revolution, there was a sharp struggle between resistance and compromise, which forced writers to take simple and sharp forms such as political comments, speeches and essays to fight. Bertrick Henry, an orator who published the famous saying "Give me liberty or give me death", Thomas Paine, who encouraged soldiers to fight bravely like a war drum, and Thomas Jefferson, who hit the nail on the head with plain writing, are fearless fighters. They honed their language art for the need of fighting. Poetry in that period was also very political, and a large number of revolutionary songs came from the people. Philip Freneau was a famous revolutionary poet at that time, and his creation created an excellent tradition of American poetry.
[Early Romantic Literature]
/kloc-at the beginning of the 0/9th century, some works with the American as the background and the American as the protagonist began to appear and began to have the characteristics of the American nation. Owen is committed to
His Experience Notes explored the legend of early immigrants in North America and created the tradition of American short stories. In the story of Leather Socks, Cooper takes the demise of Indian tribes as the background, showing how brave and upright immigrants opened up the road of American civilization. The natural scenery described by the poet Brest is completely American. He praised the local common water black and wild flowers, and praised the harmony between people through them. The works of these writers are full of optimistic spirit of the times. Poe, with a strong color, has reached a new height in poetry, short stories and theoretical criticism, marking the diversification of national literature and the development of art.
Transcendentalism and late romanticism]
After 1930s, New England, the American cultural center on the northeast coast, became the earliest industrial zone. President Jackson's democratic line has increased the democratic atmosphere in China. This has produced two ideological consequences: on the one hand, transcendentalism groups have appeared, on the other hand, some writers have generated a lot of doubts, and the tone of romantic literature has changed from optimism to doubt and denial. Transcendentalism is an ideological emancipation movement, which is first manifested in the reform of religion and philosophy, and then extended to the field of literary creation. Transcendentalists headed by Emerson, in order to abandon Calvinism's thought of "taking God as the center" and absorb the ideological materials of Kant's transcendentalism and European romantic theorists, put forward that people know the truth by intuition, so they are God in a certain range. The starting point of this school is humanism, which emphasizes entrance value, opposes authority, attaches importance to intuition, advocates personality liberation, and breaks the shackles of theology and foreign dogma, which has a great influence on American writers. In 1950s, with the emergence of various social problems caused by industrialization, writers keenly felt the disadvantages of democracy. Thoreau emphasized the "self-help" spirit of transcendentalism, advocated returning to nature and maintaining pure human nature, so it clashed with the bourgeois social order. In Hawthorne and Melville, this contradiction is expressed in an abstract and mysterious form. Hawthorne was deeply influenced by Calvinism and wanted to get rid of it, so he turned to explore the human situation and destiny, such as The Scarlet Letter (1850). Melville, like Hawthorne, attributed the social contradictions he felt to abstract "evil", which was so powerful and incomprehensible that Moby Dick (185 1) and other works were covered with a mysterious and pessimistic atmosphere.
"Brahman"
Brahman "refers to a group of highly educated writers in New England during this period, or" gentlemen poets ". Lo Longfellow
Moore (1819-1891) and Holmes (1809- 1894) are both famous intellectuals. Out of bourgeois democracy and humanitarianism, they praised patriotism, opposed slavery, sympathized with Indians, and criticized some social abuses. Because of their birth status and cultural upbringing, their views and emotions are generally moderate. Abolition of Slavery Literature After 1930s, northern progressives set off a growing abolitionist movement. The situation of black people has aroused the sympathy of many writers, from Emerson, Longfellow to Whitman, who all wrote poems against slavery. The most influential work is Mrs. Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), and Lincoln called her "the little woman who started the war". John Greenleaf Whittier, a poet, has the most poems against slavery, which reflects the main struggle of the abolitionist movement in19th century. Although abolitionist literature was confined to moral condemnation, it promoted the struggle of abolitionism and was also the forerunner of realistic creation in the literary history19th century.
[The Great Democratic Poet Lassman]
/kloc-the American democratic spirit in the 0/9th century was fully displayed in Whitman's Leaves of Grass (1855). With his rich, broad and all-encompassing verve, he reflected the optimism of the broad masses of working people during the democratic revolution. He praised labor, nature, material civilization and the ideal image of "individual"; His praise is permeated with extensive love for mankind. The poet despises slavery and all social phenomena that do not conform to the ideal of freedom and democracy with heroic and rough spirit. His unrestrained free verse style, like his ideological content, is also an innovation in the history of literature and has a wide influence.
From Civil War to World War I
From the end of the Civil War to the First World War, the general trend of American literature is the rise and development of realism and the decline of romanticism. In the twenty or thirty years after the end of the civil war, capitalism was in the stage of free competition, the ideal of democracy and freedom inspired people and writers, and optimism in literary creation was dominant. After 1980s, after experiencing several economic crises and social unrest, people suspected that democracy was "a paradise for everyone to be free and happy". After the 1980s and 1990s, the number of works criticizing reality and exposing social darkness increased, with themes related to the bankruptcy of rural areas, the hardships of the urban underclass, and the labor-capital struggle. Many works reveal racial discrimination, overseas aggression and collusion between the government and large enterprises, and some works show utopian socialist sentiment.
[Local Literature and Mark Twain]
Local literature first appeared in the twenties and thirties of 19, and further developed after the civil war. This kind of literature describes local legends and real life with strong local color and optimistic and lyrical tone, such as Brett Hart (1836- 1902) who describes the life of miners in the west, or humorous, such as Jowett (1849- 1909). Mark. Twain's creative activities lasted for nearly 50 years, and he was the main writer in this period. His masterpiece is The Adventures of Hakberg Faith (1884). His early short stories absorbed the characteristics of humorous stories in western local literature and used humorous exaggeration to express American social life. His criticism of postwar American society includes political corruption, racial discrimination, education system, religious life and so on. These criticisms are mild and well-intentioned. After the 1980s, with his deeper understanding of American democracy, the satirical elements increased, and later developed into angry protests and even pessimism. Mark Twain is a master of humorous art, he created a unique artistic style, with irony in his antics and criticism in his jokes.
Psychoanalytic novelist Henry James
Born in a noble family and deeply influenced by European culture, Henry James is a representative writer who describes the spiritual outlook of the upper bourgeoisie. His style is elegant and meticulous, paying attention to the form of expression, which is in sharp contrast with Mark Twain's rough humor and full of life interest. Although James worships European culture, he is more inclined to Americans with low cultural literacy in moral sentiment. Americans are pure and kind. Cute than Europeans (or Americans in Europe forever), which is a common theme in his novels such as Portrait of a Lady (188 1). He pioneered psychoanalytic novels. His works, especially his later works, such as Wings of Pigeons (1902), tirelessly explored the "most subtle and hazy" thoughts and feelings of the characters and transformed the "beating pulse in space" into images. On the point of careful psychological analysis, James reached an unprecedented height, which opened up a new road for the expressive force of novel art.
[The Rise of Realistic Literature]
After the 1980s and 1990s, with the gradual formation of monopoly capital, various social problems surrounding labor-capital contradictions became sharp and superficial, and writers were worried and disappointed about the social prospects. Di Wei Howells abandoned the early cheap optimism and began to show social contradictions. Under the influence of European realism and naturalism literature, a group of emerging writers reflect the negative aspects of society in many ways. The peasants described by Hagalan (1860- 1940) feel desperate; The farmer in Christopher Norris's novel (1870- 1902) was crushed by railway capital; Chris Clay (187 1- 1900) exposed urban slum life; The citizens of O 'Henry were fooled by fate. Jack London especially described the workers and vagrants struggling at the bottom of society, and expressed the desire of socialist revolution earlier. Realistic writers have their own artistic characteristics. Garland writes realism, Norris reflects a broad social picture, Clay introduces impressionism, and Jack London's writing is full of vitality and charm. O Henry opened up the road of American short stories by means of suspense and mutation. These writers have all contributed to the maturity of American literature. Since the 20th century, realistic literature has developed into two branches. One is a "shady reporter". "The Shadowblower" is about city life, which exposes the shocking corruption of large enterprises and has a strong reformist color. Most of the writing is news, and the artistic description of the image is poor. The other is a realistic novelist headed by Dreiser. Dreiser described the true face of American society extensively and profoundly. His early works, such as Sister Carrie (1900), described the humiliation and injury of working women after they entered big cities and high society.
[black literature]
African-American literature originated from the songs of slaves. These songs, whether elegies or ballads, tell the painful feelings of black people leaving their homes and becoming slaves. Written literature first appeared in18th century, and gradually increased after19th century. The form of expression is poetry first, and then novels. Most of the authors are free blacks. Except for a few writers who cater to the tastes of white readers, most writers pour out the sufferings of black slaves and accuse the evils of slavery. Around the Civil War, black writers headed by Douglas (18 17- 1895) demanded the abolition of slavery and the fight for black human rights. Black literature has become more combative. After the Civil War, the poet Dunbar (1872- 1906) and the novelist Chesnut (1858- 1932) became more mature in art. The former was imaginative and reserved in expression, while the latter exposed racial discrimination in the postwar south, but also had illusions about white rulers. Black literature became more mature after the war. Ralph Ellison's novel Invisible Man (19 14-) and Baldwin's prose have reached the level of first-class literature. They expressed their protest against racial inequality in a more subtle and profound way. They want people to realize that black people have all human nature. During this period, the poems of the poetess Guan Brooks (19 17-) were widely praised. Playwright Roland Huntsbury (1930- 1965)' s drama "Raisins in the Sun" (1959) has set a record for black drama on Broadway. Le Roy Jones (1934-) is a new generation of black poets. He gave himself another Muslim name to show his contempt for American culture.
[between the two world wars]
From World War I to World War II, it was the second prosperous period of American literature. In the 1920s, various schools appeared one after another, showing various contradictions and spiritual problems in a highly developed capitalist society. In 1930s, left-wing literature dominated. Since the late 1930s, there have been various schools of differentiation and pluralism in the literary world. Generally speaking, modernist literature and left-wing literature are the two biggest literary trends of thought in this period. From this period, American literature began to have an impact on the world. After 1930, American writers successively won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
[The Rise of Modernist Literature]
At the beginning of the 20th century, American economy developed greatly. Monopoly capital is further concentrated, big cities are densely populated, and the scale of the workers and peasants movement is growing. /kloc-the social outlook and people's mental outlook in the 0/9th century can no longer be accurately reflected by traditional realism and Whitman style. The first year 10 before World War II prepared for the birth of new styles and schools. European modernist literature and art have been introduced to the United States. American poetry is in a transitional stage in the second half of the19th century. After Whitman, only one important poet appeared, Emily Dickinson. Contrary to the grandiose romantic poetry style, she opened the road of modern American poetry with irregular rhythm, strange contrast and free association. 19 12, Poetry magazine was founded in Chicago, marking the beginning of modernist literature and art. The first three volumes of Poetry are Pound (1885- 1973), Willingsay (1879- 193 1) and Ai Lowell (1877). Li Ai masters (1868- 1950), Ma Moore (1887- 1972) and others. These people later became successful poets in America. Among them, there are imagists, Chicago poets close to the working people, pastoral poets in the 20 th century, native poets in Xinxiang and abstract philosophers. Their similarity is that they show more and more prominent alienation of people in modern capitalist society, and more or less reveal imitation and pessimism. Even in pastoral poetry, the scenery of New England described by Frost is shrouded in the shadow of alienation, strangeness and death. The representative work of modernist poetry is Eliot's The Waste Land (1922). This poem provides a symbolic metaphor for modern western society. The representative figure of modernist drama is O 'Neill, whose plays are influenced by symbolism, expressionism and Freudianism. He expressed doubts about the rationality of American society and created a modern American tragedy. In terms of novels, Gerstein (1874- 1946) and Sher Anderson (1876-194) pioneered the road of American modernist novels.
[The Lost Generation]
A few years after the end of World War I, the aversion to this war began to manifest itself in literature. Most of the writers of the "lost generation" participated in this war, and they generally felt cheated and betrayed. They no longer believe in hypocritical moral preaching, but express their negative protests with a cynical attitude towards life. The representative work of "The Lost Generation" is Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises (1926). Some writers failed to catch up with the war, such as Fitzgerald, a "jazz singer", whose feelings are similar to those of the "lost generation". Writers such as Hemingway and Fitzgerald sang lamentations of disillusionment. Later, Thomas Wolff (1900- 1938) wrote millions of novels in a short period of 10 years, in which the protagonists were all themselves, and the theme was to constantly seek goals that the author himself did not know.
The Development of Realistic Literature
During this period, traditional realistic literary works still appeared and developed. Dreiser's works in this period, including the Desire Trilogy (19 12, 19 14, 1947) and an American tragedy (1925), are more reflective and critical of reality. New Lewis Street (1920) shattered the myth that villages and towns are beautiful Xanadu. His later works exposed the problems of business, science and technology and religious circles, and his bourgeois became a typical figure of the vulgar, grandiose and materialistic middle class. Paula Cather (1873- 1947), a female writer, began by praising pioneers, then criticized the power of money, and later explored the spiritual beauty that modern America lacked from history.
"harlem renaissance"
Black literature also developed greatly in the 1920s. Under the influence of "primitivism" advocated by the literary and art circles at that time, "harlem renaissance" appeared in the black area of new york. Hughes (1902- 1967) and Karen (1903- 1946) were both outstanding writers at that time. While describing exotic feelings, their works explore the ancient traditions of black people and establish national self-esteem. By the end of 1930s, the militancy of black literature was further enhanced, and richard wright's Native Son (1940) and other excellent works appeared.
Left-wing literature and anti-fascist literature
From 65438 to 0929, the United States experienced a major economic crisis, and various social contradictions were sharp. The workers' and peasants' movement is soaring, and the influence of Marxism is expanding. John reid (1887- 1920) is the founder of left-wing literature. Since the 1930s, the ranks of left-wing writers have expanded rapidly, many left-wing literary groups and organizations have been established, various literary journals have been founded, and many conferences have been held under the leadership of the United States. In terms of works, left-wing writers have written a number of solid works. Famous writers who have established themselves in the literary world, such as Dos Pazos and Steinbeck, have also created some excellent social protest novels under the influence of this trend of thought, such as The American Trilogy (1930, 1932, 1936) and The Grapes of Wrath (/kloc). In the late 1930s, the situation at home and abroad changed, and the left-wing literature team began to divide. Writers such as Hemingway and Hailmann participated in the anti-fascist struggle, and their works reminded people to be alert to new threats.