Everything! Learn slowly.
2) verbs
4. Passive
Passive is relative to active. The so-called initiative means that the action expressed by the predicate verb is initiated by the subject, and the subject is practical, so it is active. If the subject is not the sender of the action expressed by the predicate verb, but the patient who undertakes the action, it is passive. The passive expression in ancient Chinese, like modern Chinese, is through two sentence patterns: structural marker and unstructured marker. The difference is that ancient Chinese, especially in the pre-Qin period, used unstructured symbols.
1) uses sentence patterns without structural markers to express passivity.
For example:
First, Qu Yuan was exiled and wrote Li Sao. ("Historical Records, Biography of Taishigong"-exile.
As lucky as Ji, B went in and out of the king's bedroom. (Xin Lingjun Biography)
C, self-reproach, obedience, and family concern. (Epitaph of Liu Zihou)
D and Xi Bo were detained in prison and played Zhouyi. ("Historical Records Biography of Taishigong")
They are the same as active sentences in structural form, and have no special passive signs. Passivity is reflected by the meaning and context of sentences, so some people call this kind of sentences ideological passivity.
2) Using passive sentences with structural markers, there are roughly the following structural types:
(1) "Yu (Hu)" is used after the verb to indicate initiative.
For example:
Wang Huai didn't know the difference between a loyal minister and a minister, so he was confused by Zheng Xiu inside and bullied by Yi Cheung outside. (Historical Records Biography of Qu Yuan and Jia Sheng)
Therefore, Mencius, a Confucian scholar in Sun Qing, gave up his donation to the world. (Introduction to Warring States Policy)
C, Xi Ke was wounded by an arrow, bleeding, and drowned. (Battle of Xi)
D, I have heard of changing the summer to the barbarians, but I have never heard of changing the barbarians. ("Xu Xing")
E, lujun was exiled by Kong Qiu (On Salt and Iron, Righteousness).
This is a common passive sentence pattern in the pre-Qin period. But "Yu (Hu)" itself does not mean passivity, and "Yu (Hu)" only introduces initiative, which makes the passive nature of the subject more clear. The word order of this sentence pattern is also different from modern Chinese. When reading, we should move the active phrase "He (Hu)" to the back of the verb as an adverbial for understanding or translation.
(2) "Wei", "Jian" and "Bei" are used directly before verbs to express passivity.
For example:
A, the thick ones are slaughtered, and the thin ones are suspicious.
B, believe and see doubt, loyal and slander, can have no complaints ("Historical Records, Biography of Qu Yuan and Jia Sheng")
C, a husband's plan is useless, and then know that it will not be reused ("A and B")
It was common to use "Wei" and "Bei" to express passivity in the pre-Qin period, but the word "Bei" was not used to express passivity until the end of the Warring States period. They have the same position and function in sentence structure, and they are placed directly in front of verbs to emphasize the passivity of the subject. As for actors, because it is inconvenient or unnecessary to say, they generally do not appear.
(3) Use the structure of "see (yes, yes)" ... in ".
For example:
First, I am afraid of being cheated by the king and losing Zhao. (Biography of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru)-cheated by the King.
B, parents laugh at generous families. ("Zhuangzi Qiushui")
C, those who lobby the powerful, look much more expensive than vulgar. (Introduction to Warring States Policy)
D Wu Xu's father and brother killed Chu. (Biography of Historical Records and Wu Zixu)
Well, the country of Wancheng is surrounded by Zhao. (Qi Ce Warring States Policy)
The structure of "seeing … in" was widely used in the pre-Qin period. "Wei … Yu" and "Bei … Yu" were developed at the end of the Warring States Period and after the Han Dynasty, and the latter two are probably the results of the former classification, because this structure of "Jian", "Wei" and "Bei" are all used to express passivity before verbs, while "Yu" introduces initiative after verbs.
(4) Verbs are preceded by "Wei" and "Bei" to indicate initiative.
For example:
A, the more the better, why do you want to bird me ("Historical Records Biography of Huaiyin Hou")
B, who laughs for the world, why not (On Qin by Jia Yi)
C, can't go today, fear, die for the world. What can you do? (Biography of Gong Sui)
I was called by the ministers for questioning. (Cai Yong "Collection Schedule")
E, Liangzi was harmed by the Soviet army (Shi Shuo Xin Yu Yan).
In the pre-Qin period, "Wei" was often used to express initiative, and "Bei" didn't have this function until the end of Han Dynasty. This usage is different from "Wei" and "Bei" before the above verbs. It does not emphasize the passivity of the subject by strengthening the passive meaning of the verb. Just like Yu, by introducing the initiative of action, the passive nature of the subject is more obvious. It is different from "Yu"
"Yu" after the verb and "Jian" or "Wei" before the verb are not the unique signs of passive sentences. Therefore, if you can't see the word "Yu" after the verb or the words "Jian" and "Wei" before the verb, it is judged as a passive sentence. They may also be objects dominated or related by actions, rather than active or purely passive actions. For example:
One copy, handed down from generation to generation to the king. ("Historical Records Liang Xiaowang Family")
B, it is not enough to be an outsider's humanitarian. (Tao Yuanming's Peach Blossom Garden)
C, having a baby in June, a loving father will see his back. (Chen Qingbiao of Shimi)
The words "Yu", "Wei" and "Jian" here are all before and after the transitive verb, but they are not passive sentences. Only when the structure is before and after the transitive verb, there must be no object after the transitive verb, and the meaning is to introduce initiative or directly express passivity, such a sentence is a passive sentence. These sentences must be determined according to their meanings.
(5) Use the structure of "for(be)…".
For example:
If you don't leave quickly today, you may be caught by Cao Cao first. (Battle of Red Cliffs)-Cao Cao took the lead.
B, magic is unnecessary and suspicious. ("Xunzi Wen Yao")
C, got the news that his father was killed. (Xin Lingjun Biography)
D, as timid as grass, was eaten by a snake. (Li Ji Sue Ji Shen)
Ten paragraphs of Wu and E, especially Miao Danqing, are often written by Yuan Di, and they are ashamed and resentful. ("Yan Jiaxun Acrobatics")
"Wei's structure ..." Suo "sprouted at the end of the Warring States period and was widely used after Qin and Han Dynasties. The structure of "Bei" ... "Suo" may come from the structure of "Wei" ... Suo ". Just like the structure of Sword, the structure of "Yu", "Wei (Bei) ..." Suo "also introduces passive semantics and active semantics. The word phrase "Yu" ... "Suo" with the structure of "Jian" introduces initiative after the verb, while the phrase "Wei (Bei)" with the structure of "Wei (Bei)" introduces initiative before the verb, which is determined by the original functional characteristics of "Yu" and "Wei (Bei)".
In the structure of the word "Wei", the word "Wei" is followed by "Suo", sometimes it is an act without initiative, and "Wei" is connected with "Suo", such as:
If you don't do this, you will be caught. (The Hongmen Banquet)-Caught.
"Song suffered a loss ... soldiers seized it, and Song Yizhou praised Li and was killed. "(preface to biography of Zhang Zhongcheng by Han Yu).
In terms of "Wei" and "Wei", although this structure existed as early as the pre-Qin period, it was rarely used, such as:
A, martyrs see the world good, not enough to live. ("Zhuangzi Zhile")
B, there is Zhang Daoshi recently, and people believe it. (The Biography of Song Shu Lu Wang Jiang)
C, love begets sorrow, or is lost by his father and taken away by others ... Those who are afraid of love are proud to see their wives. ("Out of the Obsidian Classics, Desire for Goods")
The combination of "Wei …" and "Wei …" can also be changed into "Wei …", and this structure of "Wei" was discovered only from the end of Han Dynasty to Sui and Tang Dynasties. For example:
Zhuge Ke, Teng Yin and Lv Ju were innocent and were seen and destroyed by Jun and Chen brothers. ("Three Kingdoms, Wu Zhi, Sun Chenchuan")
Second, the Liangzhou Department ... was occupied by small officials. They were poor and bored, so they rebelled. (Biography of Western Qiang in the Later Han Dynasty)
C, I am ignorant by nature, and I don't know much about personnel, but I am calm and knowledgeable, and I have never been abandoned for a day. It is really recommended by my peers. (Han Yu's "Chaozhou Secretariat Xie Shangbiao")
(3) Adjectives
Adjectives are words that indicate the nature or state of things.
1, ancient Chinese is mainly used as predicate, attribute and adverbial of sentences.
Adjectives in ancient Chinese, like those in modern Chinese, are often used as predicates (indicating the nature of the subject, such as "Frost leaves are red in February flowers"), attributives (indicating the nature of the headword it modifies, such as "moving trees out of the valley") and adverbials (indicating the nature of predicate actions, such as "looking across the ridge into a peak" and "light makeup and heavy makeup are always appropriate".
Adjectives are subject and object because the nature and state they represent are regarded as one thing by the speaker, and some grammar books call them "nominalization". For example:
Distance is different-as the main body
Who Pities Hong Xiang-As a Topic
There is a gap in the other section, but the blade is not thick ("My Skillful Understanding of Cattle")-as the object.
Another situation in which adjectives are used as subject and object is the omission of the head word of the radical phrase, that is, "generalizing the whole with the partial". Therefore, if you encounter this usage of adjectives, you have to add the head word and understand it according to the radical phrase with the head word.
For example:
A, so the new is opposite, and the front and back are opposite. (Fixed Law)-Old Law, New Law
B, Yu and others are light and sharp (Battle of Red Cliffs)-light and elite soldiers.
Just as the general attribute can modify various headwords, the same adjective can have different headwords in this usage. The judgment of the head word that does not appear is mainly based on the context. In terms of sentences, it is mainly based on the predicate meaning and its related components, that is, the head word that does not appear must have the characteristics represented by adjectives and meet the requirements of the predicate meaning.
2. Adjectives in ancient Chinese all have elements similar to prefixes, such as "Qi" and "You".
For example:
A, if I don't go home, I'm worried. (The Book of Songs)
B, I'm from the east, and it rains at zero. (The Book of Songs Dongshan)
These adjectives with prepositional elements are equivalent to overlapping adjectives.
Suffixes "Ran", "Ru", "Ruo", "Hu" and "Yan" are often used as adverbials and sometimes as predicates or attributes.
For example:
A, I care, but I can't cry. ("The Book of Songs Xiaoya Dadong")
B, the master smiled. ("The Analects of Confucius Yang Huo")
C. If a gentleman leads without sending, he will jump like a horse. ("Mencius")
D, rivers flood, autumn sun exposure, almost impossible. ("Xu Xing")
E, there is someone here today, so I love my son. (Mozi Tian Zhizhong)
F, the king is clear. (Introduction to Warring States Policy)
3. There are quite a number of adjective reduplications in ancient Chinese, which are different from those in modern Chinese and do not contain the meaning of "hen", so they are often understood as "……".
For example:
A, the world is bustling, all for profit; All the noise in the world is for profit. (Preface to Biography of Huo Zhi)
B, remonstrance is king inside, blame is Fu Xiang outside, quote classics, have substance in words, and Chen Xing is blessed. As for crying, it is endless. (Gong Suichuan)
C, the flood, Shan Ye boundless fragrance. ("Shangshu Hao Tao Hume")
D, another section of Nanshan, Weishiyan. ("The Book of Songs Xiaoya Sacrifices Nanshan")
E is a person who has no hidden ambition, clear knowledge, care and work. ("Xunzi exhortation")
Others, such as Guo Guo, Tang Tang (Meng), Ber Ber, Decadence, You Li (Mi Li), Cang Cang, Yu Tang and Cai Cai Cai in The Book of Songs.
(D) Quantifiers
Words that indicate the quantity or order of things or actions are called numerals, and words that calculate the unit of quantity of things or actions are called quantifiers, collectively known as quantifiers. The grammatical functions of numerals are basically the same as adjectives. So some grammar books add adjectives to numbers and say them.
1, quantifiers can be used as attributes and adverbials before nouns and verbs.
For example:
Half-rolled curtain, grinding ice into the ground, grinding jade into the basin-as an adverbial
Stealing a pear core is white, borrowing a plum blossom is a soul.
2. Numerals in ancient Chinese are normal, while quantifiers are underdeveloped compared with modern Chinese, so numerals are often used to represent quantity.
For example:
Qi people have wives and concubines and official positions ("Qi people have wives and concubines")
I have been away from home for eight years and have not entered for three years.
3. Quantifiers can also be used as predicates and adverbials after verbs and nouns to answer the questions of "what" and "how". Quantifiers are used after nouns to make quantitative statements about nouns.
For example:
The country of a thousand riders is seven, and the country of a thousand riders is five.
4. Quantifiers can be used as complements after verbs or verb-object phrases.
For example:
Solid to 300 silk (anecdote of Duan Taiwei)-supplement
Spread a sentence on your back and hit twenty with a big stick (anecdote of Duan Taiwei)-supplement
5. Quantifiers can also be used as subjects and objects after verbs or verb-object phrases. Quantifiers, as subjects and objects, can also be regarded as the usage of "generalizing the whole with the partial".
For example:
Achuo Shuodong, Achuo Yongnan (Yugong Yishan).
Today, there is nothing in the room (Snake Catcher)
6. Special usage of several numerals
1) "one"
Used before a verb to indicate the number of actions, as an adverbial. For example:
High spirits (Cao Gui debate)
Used before verbs to indicate hypothetical situations. For example:
If you don't use it, you will be depressed and unable to recover. (On Jia Yi)
As soon as the son opens his mouth, she makes a promise.
2) "Two" and "Again"
Both of them represent the number "two", but the objects are different.
If it means quantity, use "two". For example:
Two people lost their relatives in their early years, in their thirties, with two colors on their sideburns. (Taiping Yu Lan Cai Lan's book)
If you mean momentum, use "again". For example:
Kowtow again.
Five battles between Qin and Zhao, Qin Zaisheng and Zhao Sansheng.
Note: The usage of "zai" is very different from that of modern Chinese. In ancient Chinese, the word for repetitive action was "Fu". For example:
Feng Xuan stopped singing.
The word "zai" in ancient Chinese is equivalent to "twice" in modern Chinese.
Three, nine, ten and one hundred.
They are placed before nouns to indicate quantity, and before verbs to indicate momentum. They often represent imaginary numbers rather than real numbers, meaning "numerous". For example:
I left home for eight years and didn't go in three times. (Xu Xing)
If a servant is brought to justice, he will be punished, which is a drop in the bucket.
Although Shang Jun decorated his laws ten times. ("D Law")
I call him a man who knows everything and thinks he is not his own. ("Zhuangzi Qiushui")
The usage of "money" and "ten thousand" is the same.
"Three" sometimes refers to "less" when expressing imaginary numbers. This usage is special and needs attention. For example:
A threesome requires a teacher.
7. Representation of scores
The most complete expression of a score includes these components: mother number+"fen"+noun+"zhi" (conjunction)+child number. For example:
1 29, 940 minutes, 499. (Historical Records and Yearbook Index)
Among them, "940" is the mother number, "day" is the noun, and "499" is the child number.
8. Components that can be omitted
1) Omit "fen", that is, mother number+noun+"zhi" (conjunction)+child number. For example:
Most of them are just one of the participating countries.
Among them, "Shen" is the mother number, "Guo" is the noun, and "One" is the sub number.
2) Omitting nouns, namely: mother number+"fen"+"zhi" (conjunction)+child number, which is the same as modern Chinese. For example:
One third of the land in the Qin Dynasty was under the sky. (History of Han Geography)
3) Omission of "fen" and "noun", that is, "fen"+"zhi" (conjunction)+sub-number. For example:
Chen Weizhou, above the ridge, measures it, and takes two out of three.
Generally speaking, the mother number, "Zhi" and daughter number should be complete.
Under special circumstances, you can also omit "Zhi" and only keep the mother number and child number. For example:
Gaiyu's journey is not eleven times better than that of a good traveler. ("You Bao Chan")
9. Representation of multiples
One time is "time" and five times can be regarded as "passing". Others are usually expressed directly by cardinal words. "Guo" is usually used not only, but also with "times" and "Guo" to indicate indefinite majority. For example:
Or many times, or hundreds of times, or tens of millions of times. ("Xu Xing")
Fourth, the flexible use of parts of speech
(1) definition
Like modern Chinese, some words in ancient Chinese have certain parts of speech and their functions in sentences are generally fixed, but they can be used flexibly under certain conditions, which can make some words lose their original parts of speech and temporarily have the grammatical functions of another kind of words. This kind of temporary flexible words is called flexible parts of speech.
Flexible use of parts of speech is a grammatical phenomenon in which a word loses its original part of speech in a sentence according to certain habits and temporarily acts as the grammatical role of other parts of speech.
(B) Features of flexible use of parts of speech
First, flexible use is a temporary usage, that is, it must appear in a certain context. With the loss of context, the grammatical function of flexible use will also be lost.
Second, the words before and after flexible use are closely related in grammatical meaning. For example, I want to be the king of Wu, and I care about it (Zuo Zhuan Ding Gong Ten Years).
Among them, Wu Wang is a noun. Among them, "desire" before "Wu Wang" is a will verb, which requires it to be followed by a verb. In addition, "I" after "Wu Wang" is the object, which requires it to be followed by a verb. Therefore, "Wu Wang" is temporarily used as a verb in such a specific context. Without this context, "Wu Wang" cannot be used as a verb.
(3) The flexible use of parts of speech is different from that of double-category words.
The double category of words means that a word has two or more parts of speech, which is a fixed usage. This phenomenon that a word has two or more parts of speech properties is caused by the extension of words, which is polysemy. It is not temporary, but the word itself.
Flexible use is caused by the specific language environment, which is a temporary change in meaning and part of speech. For example, cars are on the same track and books are in the same language. (Historical Records of Qin Shihuang)
"Track", a noun, refers to the distance between two ruts. Because this distance is certain, it is extended to refer to laws, rules, and cars must follow this trajectory, so it is extended to follow and conform, which becomes a verb. Therefore, "although his actions are not just righteousness, his words must be true, and his actions must bear fruit" ("Historical Records Biography of Rangers"). This is an extended meaning.
Another example is: "Disease" is a noun in "Cao had an epidemic disease when he was in office" ("Zi Tong Zhi Jian Battle of Red Cliffs"), which is called disease; It is a verb in "Biography of Historical Records and Sun Bin" and "Pang Juan is afraid of being virtuous and sick", which should be said with jealousy; It is an adjective in "Much thunder and little rain" (The History of the Three Kingdoms, Shu Wei, Emperor Wudi). When we talk about it quickly, "disease" has three parts of speech at the same time, which is not the result of temporary use, but an inherent and frequent phenomenon of "disease" itself, not a temporary or accidental phenomenon, so it is not flexible, but universal. "Disease" has its original meaning. By extension, it means fast, because when a disease occurs, it is usually very fast.
(D) Flexible use of parts of speech and dual-class words have the following main differences.
First, the reasons are different.
The flexible use of parts of speech is caused by certain language environment, that is, external factors, which is temporary. Once out of context, the word will return to its original part of speech.
The double category of words is caused by the extension of words. It is permanent, has two or more parts of speech at any time, is not affected by the environment, and only expresses one part of speech in a certain language environment.
Second, translated into modern Chinese, they have different meanings.
Because the category of parts of speech is caused by extension, the translation of the original words in extension into modern Chinese does not appear. For example, the word "rail" in "although its behavior is inappropriate" is extended to the verb "follow", and the word "rail" does not appear when translating this sentence.
However, flexible translation usually uses a verb-object phrase related to the original word, which often appears. For example, when I want to be the king of Wu was translated into modern Chinese, the king of Wu still appeared. "A" still appears when "those who make a hullabaloo about do their best" is translated into modern Chinese.
(5) Specific content
1, nouns are used as verbs
When nouns are used as verbs, some are used as general verbs, while others are used as verbs and verbs.
Nouns are used as general verbs.
It has the general meaning of a verb closely related to the meaning of the original noun. If there is an object, its relationship with the object is a general verb-object relationship. For example:
A, from the left and right elbows. (Battle of Xi)
B, Cao Ren was so scared that he came out of the coffin for his income. ("The Battle of Chengpu")
C. Cao Ren's body was found in Zhucheng. (Battle of Chengpu)
D, whoever beheads a song will be awarded a grade. ("D Law")
E, the first battalion made a scene and tried its best. ("Anecdote of Duan Taiwei")
F, want to fight left and right. ("Historical Records Biography of Boyi")
These flexible verbs not only simply express actions, but also contain more complex meanings closely related to the original meaning, such as "elbow from left to right" translated into "elbow top".
2) Nouns are used as conation
It is the subject who subjectively regards the person or thing represented by the object as the person or thing represented by this noun, and the person or thing represented by the object itself has not changed.
For example:
Once, Zhao Wangde's son snatched soldiers from Jin and saved Zhao. (The Legend of Xinling Jun)
B, the son is proud. (Xin Lingjun Biography)
Third, madam, I don't care about madam ("Gu Liangchuan ·Xi· Gong Eight Years")
D, friends in the same boat through thick and thin. (Xun Fuzi's Poems on Ming Dynasty)-Take the wind as your friend and the rain as your son.
E, Lu Yu will Wuqi. ("Historical Records, Sun Tzu's Biography of Wuqi")
In translation, conative usage should be translated into an "object-based" format.
3) Nouns are used as causative agents
Is to make the person or thing represented by the object become the person or thing represented by this noun.
For example:
I want to be the king of Wu (Ten Years of Zuo Zhuan Ding Gong)
B took advantage of the situation and offered condolences to Minister Zhong Ni. ("Everything is wrong")
The causative usage of nouns can be translated in the format of "making the object as the predicate"
4) Positional nouns are used as verbs, just like nouns. The difference is that they all represent directional movements.
For example:
And he crossed the river from Jiangdong to the west with 8,000 disciples. ("Historical Records of Xiang Yu")
5) the judgment that nouns are used flexibly as verbs
First of all, in a sense.
If a noun cannot be explained by its original meaning in a sentence, it must be understood by a verb or verb-object phrase directly related to the noun. In this case, nouns are generally used as verbs.
Second, from a formal point of view.
First of all, nouns are predicates, not judgments or descriptive sentences.
Secondly, before and after this noun, there are some special words that match it. For example, in I Want to Be King of Wu, there is a will verb "desire" before King of Wu, a negative adverb "no" before Jun, and a "suo" before Guan crosses the river. "City" is followed by the locative word "Tiger Hill". In addition, when two nouns are used together, they are impartial, not subject-predicate, and not juxtaposed, so the former noun may be used flexibly. For example, in Wang, a minister, a doctor and a minister, "minister" is used flexibly as a verb. "When the marquis of Jin surrounded Cao, the door was unclear" and "door" was used flexibly.
That's all, big brother I tried my best.
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