As a written communication tool for Tibetan people, Tibetan has a long history, second only to Chinese in China. It is a phonetic symbol, belonging to the consonant type, which is divided into three parts: consonant letters, vowel symbols and punctuation marks. Among them, there are 30 consonants, 4 vowels and 5 reverse letters (used to spell foreign words). Tibetan pronunciation has evolved for more than a thousand years, but the orthography of written language remains unchanged, and Tibetan spelling has become very complicated. Take Lhasa dialect as an example. When spelling, different consonants are added to express different tones. Although Tibetan spelling is complicated, it is very regular. After two months of intensive training, you can master Tibetan spelling, and you will know the pronunciation when you see Tibetan, although you don't necessarily know its meaning. Therefore, learning Tibetan spelling is still easier than learning English spelling.
Consonant letters are grouped into four letters and * * has seven and a half groups. The actual pronunciation of each letter is different in ancient times and dialects, but it is accompanied by a vowel A, which means "sweet words", which is relative to consonants. Because vowel sounds are fluent and pleasant to hear, it is named. Punctuation marks mean "dividing lines" or "demarcation symbols". Tibetan punctuation marks are simple in form and few in variety, and their usage rules are different from other characters. Tibetan punctuation mark * * * has six forms, among which the sound insulation symbol between syllables is used most frequently. In addition, there are cloud head symbols, which are used for book titles or titles; Snake pendant, used at the beginning of the article; A single pendant used at the end of a phrase or sentence; Double drop, used at the end of the chapter; Four pendants are used at the end of the roll. With the development of society, in order to express semantics more accurately, western punctuation marks are borrowed and used in Tibetan.
Tibetan glyph structures are all based on one letter, and other letters are added and written up and down to form a complete word list structure. Usually, the Tibetan glyph structure is at least a consonant letter, that is, it consists of a basic word alone; It consists of six consonants at most, and vowels are added at the top, bottom and center of the consonant structure. The core letters are called "base words", and the names of other letters are named according to the parts added to the base words. That is, the letters added before the base words are called "pre-added words", the letters added above the base words are called "secondary added words", the letters added after the base words are called "post-added words" or "post-added words". All 30 letters in Tibetan can be used as basic characters, but they can be added before, after and after. There are limited letters after words. Later additions have been cancelled in the determination of words and only appear in the literature.
Tibetan writing habit is from right to left. Fonts are divided into "prefix" and "headless", which are named according to different forms of fonts. The leading character is equivalent to regular script, which is often used in printing, sculpture, official documents and so on. Headless characters are equivalent to running scripts and are mainly used for handwriting. Headless characters can be subdivided into "hugs-thung", which means "short strokes"; Tshugs-rin), meaning "long strokes"; "vbru-tsa" is a running script font with prominent edges and corners at the turning point of strokes. There is also a cursive script with fast writing and simplified strokes. It is called "vkhyug" in Tibetan, which is suitable for shorthand, and its shape is very different from that of print. Headless characters prevail in Weizang area and prefix characters prevail in Amdo area.
Creation of Tibetan language
Under the governance of Songzan Gambu, the Tibetan economy is developing day by day and its strength is growing day by day. But there is a big problem that annoys him very much, that is, Tubo had written language at that time, but there was no unified language, no way to issue laws, no way to make laws, no way to translate Buddhist scriptures, and no way to communicate with neighboring countries through letters. Many countries have sent envoys, generous gifts and letters written in various languages. The Tubo maharaja also prepared a reply for them, but there was no way to write a reply, so he had to answer a few words orally through an interpreter and sent the envoy away.
In fact, Songzan Gambo wanted to create Tubo's own characters from the moment he ascended the throne. He sent several ministers to South Asia and West Asia to learn Chinese characters with a lot of gold dust and gold dust. Some people who went were killed by robbers on the road, some were eaten by tigers in the forest, and some died of heatstroke and fever. The remaining few people returned empty-handed.
Later, Songzan Gambu remembered an able man named Tommy Sambuza. He has been smart since he was a child and has the spirit of suffering. Songzan Gambu specially called him into Hongshan Palace, encouraged him and urged him, saying that we Tubo have no words, just like a man without eyes, a warrior without a sword, walking in the night without lights. You must learn word formation, which is a great event for the benefit of future generations. He gave Tunmi a bucket of gold dust and asked him to take the gift of learning from his teacher. Give him a lot of tablets such as borneol, borneol and sandalwood, and prepare to get rid of summer heat and prevent diseases on the way.
After Tunmisambuza left, Songzan Gambu specially built a 9-story palace fort at Nianggoukou, north of Jixuewotang, named Gongga Pill, and prepared to live in it to create a Tibetan after Tunmisambuza returned from school.
In addition, Tumi Sambuza and his companions left Jixue Wotang, went through hardships, crossed the snow-covered Himalayas, rode elephants out of the tiger-infested forest and traveled all over South Asia. Finally, they found the Brahman Li Jing, the master of sentence and philology, presented the golden sand and gold powder, and respectfully put forward the request for word creation. The Brahman Li Jing was moved by his enthusiasm and will and promised to accept him as an apprentice. Tommy Sambuza studied with Li Jing for three years, learned Sanskrit, Urdu and other South Asian characters, and also learned to create characters. Finally, I returned to Tubo with such classics as Baoyun Sutra, Baoyun Sutra and Lotus Sutra of Great Compassion.
Songtsan Gambu warmly welcomed Tommy Sambuza back from his studies, and personally sent him to Marugongbao in Gongga, a northern suburb, where he concentrated on creating characters. Tunmi Sambuza has never left home since she moved in. Just like a practicing Lama, he stayed in it for many days and nights. Finally, one morning, he sent a report: Tibetan has been created! Songzan Gambu was as happy as finding gold the size of a horse's head, and immediately led the ministers to ride to the northern suburbs. Tumisanbuza wrote the created Tibetan letters on the surrounding rocks with big characters, small characters, big grass and small grass. He said, I imitated Lanza to create Tibetan regular script, and imitated Urdu to create Tibetan cursive script. The Tibetan letter * * * has 30 consonants and 4 vowels, which can spell all Tibetan languages and express all Tibetan meanings. Songtsan Gambu said that he is grateful to Minister Tunmi Sambuza, who has made great contributions to our Tubo and brought great kindness to our Tubo people. However, only those who swallow rice can write, read and use Chinese characters. It should be popularized throughout Tibet, especially for me and the ministers to take the lead in familiarizing themselves with and using it. Today, in front of everyone, I was the first to learn and master Tibetan, and I took Sambuza as my teacher.
From then on, Songzan Gambu entrusted Wang Zheng to several ministers, and lived in Gongga Marugongbao to learn to write from Tunmi. It is said that this research lasted for four years. During this period, Songtsan Gambu not only learned and mastered Tibetan, but also formulated the Ten Good Laws with Tumi Sambuza, which is the first legal provision written and promulgated in Tibetan, that is, the moral code that all Tibetans should follow.
On auspicious days, Tibetan subjects and people gather in Jixue Wotang to perform various songs, dances and operas to celebrate the creation of Tibetan and the birth of Ten Good Laws. Songzan Gambu personally introduced Tubo Sambuza to all subjects and people and praised him as a minister of Tubo. Mkas-pavi-dgav-ston, an ancient Tibetan history, wrote:
Seven sages among Tibetans,
Tommigao is the fourth saint,
The seven sages are by no means average tall,
The first translator to be promoted,
Tibetans always show great kindness,
The incense burning ceremony should be.
Three Decisions of Tibetan Language
Every script can't be perfect at the beginning of creation. It needs to constantly sum up experience in application, gradually standardize and improve, and Tibetan language also has a development process. According to Tibetan historical records, Tibetan language has been standardized three times in history, from the middle of the 8th century to the early 9th century, from the middle of the 9th century to the early 20th century, and 1 1.
From the middle of 8th century to the beginning of 9th century, Song Dezan (730-797)? —8 15) is the first time to standardize Tibetan. Nine famous translators appeared in this period. Among them, Bai Ruozan compiled a dictionary of standardized translation tools for the target language according to the development and standardization needs of the target language at that time. This is a milestone in the history of Tibetan dictionaries.
When Tubo Zampa khri-gtsug-lde-btsan (Rebajin, 803-84 1, recorded in China's Tang Shu), he collected and printed famous translators, set up special translation fields, unified translation names, stipulated translation examples, revised old translation classics, and further standardized Tibetan. Tibetan history calls this the second specification. The Tibetan structure, spelling rules, rules for coining new words and expressing new concepts formed in this specification have not changed so far.
This standardization is well documented in Tibetan history books such as mkas-pavi-dgav-ston. The main contents are as follows: First, the "imperial edict" was issued, the terminology of new words was determined, and the work supervisors were determined to be Bozhan Bubie Jiyundan and Ding Ezeng. Secondly, three principles of translation are clarified: translation should conform to the principle of statement theory; Translation should be faithful to the original; The translation should be fluent and easy to understand. Third, formulate transliteration, free translation, literal translation and modification methods. Among them, transliteration stipulates that transliteration is not suitable for the free translation of function words or sentence theories that are difficult to explain; When a polysemous word cannot be translated according to its meaning, transliteration is adopted; Some words are easily misunderstood or ambiguous, so transliteration is adopted. Fourth, stipulate four points for attention. In particular, it is stipulated that all translation fields should not translate and create new words and terms according to their own dialects and dialects, and must use standardized languages; If you really want to innovate words, you must have sufficient reasons and evidence, and the newly created words must be approved by Zapp before they can be used.
This time, the text was determined strictly and carefully, and the result was great. At that time, Tibetan translators such as Jawa Bai Ze, Choro Ruijianshen, Xiang Yixizhen and Indian Banzhi Dazzi Namiza and Dhanapala revised the old translations. At the same time, they put forward how to translate famous secretaries, wrote "Two Chapters of Language and Harmony", and established the translation principle of consistency between propaganda and Tibetan, which is easy to understand. In addition, in view of the nonstandard Tibetan vocabulary and the confusion of the target language, a standard Tibetan-Sanskrit comparative dictionary, A Compilation of Translation Names, with 283 categories of 9565 words, was collected and edited, and later included in the Tibetan Tripitaka Tanjur Department. During this period, Tubo hired many Panditha from Tianzhu to Tibet, and together with local translators, compiled a wealth of literary classics according to the standardized Tibetan translation.
Khri-gtsug-lde-btsan period had a great influence on the new norms of Tibetan language. At present, the prevailing Tibetan language basically retains the revised writing system of this period. Some principles and regulations are still shining today. For example, the content of the second item above fully conforms to the three principles of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" required by modern translation; The principle of transliteration is also fully applicable to modern times.
Renqing Sambu (958 ~ 1055), a great translator, is the son of Ali Guge King Siwo, the fifth grandson of the last Tubo Zapudama. For good, moral and intellectual protection, he cooperated with Pandi Pagoda in Tianzhu to revise the text and determine the new translation. Tibetan history calls this the third norm.
In Tibetan history, several measures have been taken to adjust the Tibetan alphabet system, simplify orthography, standardize the use of characters, and legislate, which not only promoted the standardization and standardization of Tibetan, but also played a positive role in the unification, popularization and application of Tibetan and the development of Tibetan culture.
The use of Tibetan language
At present, Tibetan has been widely promoted and used in Tibetan areas. Tibetan language teaching schools are all over Tibetan areas. There are more than 20 Tibetan newspapers and periodicals in China, 8 publishing houses that publish Tibetan books, and more than 20 modern printing houses that print Tibetan books and newspapers. The Development of Tibetan Culture published by the State Council Press Office in June 2000 gives a comprehensive and brief introduction to the use and development of Tibetan language in Tibet. We might as well extract it here, from which we can get a glimpse of the use of Tibetan language in Tibetan areas.
Xizang Autonomous Region is a region where Tibetans live in compact communities, and the Tibetan population accounts for more than 95%. Tibetan is the common language in this region. In accordance with the Constitution and the Law on Regional National Autonomy, Xizang Autonomous Region attaches great importance to safeguarding and guaranteeing people in Xizang's right to learn, use and develop its own spoken and written languages. 1987 and 1988 promulgated the detailed rules for the implementation of certain provisions on learning, using and developing Tibetan language in Xizang Autonomous Region and certain provisions on learning, using and developing Tibetan language in Xizang Autonomous Region. Governments at all levels in Tibet have implemented the Regulations on the Protection and Development of Tibetan Language according to law. While ensuring people in Xizang's right to learn and use Tibetan language, Tibetan language is developing with the development of politics, economy and culture.
Tibetan language is widely used in all aspects of social life in Tibet. 1959 since the democratic reform, resolutions and regulations adopted by the people's congress of Xizang Autonomous Region, official documents and announcements issued by governments and government departments at all levels in Tibet have been written in both Tibetan and Chinese. In judicial proceedings, Tibetan litigants try cases and legal documents in Tibetan language. The official seals, certificates, forms, envelopes, letterheads, manuscripts, signs, signs, street names and traffic signs of government agencies, factories, mines, schools, stations, airports, shops, hotels, theaters and gymnasiums are written in Tibetan and Chinese.
At present, Xizang Autonomous Region's radio and television broadcasts in Tibetan for more than 20 hours every day. 1 99965438+1October1After the satellite TV channel of Tibet TV started broadcasting, Tibetan programs and translated films were broadcast every day. Movies are oriented to grassroots and agricultural and pastoral areas, and 25 new translations of Tibetan films are guaranteed to be shown in various places every year. Tibetan books and newspapers have developed rapidly. During the period from 10 since 1989, 44 1 Tibetan books have been published, and many high-quality Tibetan books have won prizes at home and abroad. According to statistics, there are four Tibetan magazines 14 and Tibetan newspapers 10 in Tibet. The Tibetan version of Tibet Daily is published every day, and a large number of manuscripts are written and edited directly in Tibetan. In addition, a huge sum of money was invested to establish a computerized Tibetan editing and typesetting system, ending the history of printing. Both Tibet Science and Technology News and Tibet Science and Technology Information News have established Tibetan editions, which are very popular among farmers and herdsmen. All literary and art groups in Tibet create programs and performances in Tibetan.
Tibetan language learning is guaranteed according to law. Xizang Autonomous Region's education system has fully implemented the bilingual education system with Tibetan as the main teaching language, and compiled and published Tibetan teaching materials and teaching reference materials for all courses from primary school to high school.
With the progress of the times and the development of society, Tibetan vocabulary and grammar are constantly enriched, enriched and developed. Significant progress has been made in the standardization of Tibetan terminology and information technology. Tibetan coding has officially passed China's national standards and international standards, and Tibetan information has gone global.
Part of the information comes from China Tibetan Studies Network.
Tibetan is a fairly developed language, and there are numerous ancient documents written in Tibetan. In the 3rd century A.D./KLOC-0, Kublai Khan of Yuan Shizu ordered a set of newly created "Mongolian New Characters" in junior middle schools, namely "Basiba Mongolian", which was produced under the influence of Tibetan letters.