Tang poetry
Tang poetry generally refers to poems written in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty is considered to be the dynasty with the richest old poems in China, so it is called Tang Poetry and Song Poetry. Most of the Tang poems are included in The Complete Poems of Tang Poetry. Since the Tang Dynasty, anthologies of Tang poetry have emerged continuously, and the most widely spread is "Three Hundred Tang Poems" compiled by retired scholars in Hengtang. The creation of Tang poetry can be divided into four stages according to time: early Tang, prosperous Tang, middle Tang and late Tang.
There were many poets in the Tang Dynasty. Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi are world-famous great poets. Besides them, there are countless other poets, like the stars all over the sky.
Tang poetry has a wide range of themes. Some of them reflected the class status and class contradictions of the society at that time and exposed the darkness of feudal society; Some praise the just war and express patriotic thoughts; Some depict the beauty of the motherland's rivers and mountains; In addition, some people express their personal ambitions and experiences, some express their children's love, some tell the friendship of friends, the joys and sorrows of life and so on. In short, natural phenomena, political dynamics, working life, social customs and personal feelings can't escape the poet's keen eyes and become the subject matter of their writing.
In terms of creative methods, there are both realism and romanticism, and many great works are examples of the combination of these two creative methods, forming an excellent tradition of China's classical poetry.
There are various forms of Tang poetry. There are basically two kinds of ancient poems in Tang Dynasty: five-character poems and seven-character poems. There are also two kinds of modern poems, one is called quatrains, and the other is called metrical poems. Quatrains and metrical poems are five words and seven words respectively. Therefore, there are basically six basic forms of Tang poetry: five-character archaic poetry, seven-character archaic poetry, five-character quatrains, seven-character quatrains, five-character rhythmic poems and seven-character rhythmic poems.
The forms and styles of Tang poetry are colorful and innovative. It not only inherited the tradition of Han and Wei folk songs and Yuefu, but also greatly developed the singing style. It not only inherited the five-character or seven-character ancient poems of the previous generation, but also developed into a long and huge system of narrative romance; It not only expanded the use of five-character and seven-character styles, but also created modern poems with particularly beautiful and neat styles. Modern poetry was a new style of poetry at that time, and its emergence and maturity was an important event in the history of Tang poetry development. It pushed the artistic features of China's ancient poems with harmonious syllables and refined words to an unprecedented height, and found a typical form for ancient lyric poetry, which has been especially loved by people so far. However, the metrical poems in modern poetry are easy to be bound because of their strict metrical restrictions, which is a major defect brought by their advantages.
The schools of Tang poetry are divided into pastoral poetry, frontier poems, romanticism and realism.
Song Ci is a kind of poetry. Because it is the lyrics of music and harmony, it is also called tune, Yuefu, music movement, long and short sentences, poetry, piano music and so on. It began in the Tang Dynasty, took shape in the Five Dynasties and flourished in the Song Dynasty. Song Ci is a brilliant diamond in the crown of China ancient literature. In the ancient literature of Yuen Long, it is a fragrant and gorgeous garden. With its colorful and varied charm, she is on a par with Tang poetry and Yuanqu, and has always been said to be the best companion of Tang poetry, representing the prosperity of a generation of literature.
Song ci is another literary school after Tang poetry, which is basically divided into two categories: graceful school and wild school.
There are roughly five types of Song Ci:
1, according to the length scale, words can be roughly divided into Xiao Ling (within 58 words), Middle Tone (within 59-90 words) and Long Tone (above 9 1 word, with the longest word reaching 240 words). A word, some with only one paragraph, is called monotony; Some are divided into two sections, called double tones; Some are divided into three or four sections, which are called three or four sections.
2. According to the nature of music, words can be divided into nine types: ling, yin, slow, three sets, preface, French music, Daqu, lingering and Zhu Gong tune.
3. According to the beat segment, there are four common types: Ling, also known as Xiaoling, whose beat segment is short; Lead, lead long in a small order; Near, the tone is similar, which leads to long; The slower, the longer the lead.
4. According to the creative style, it can be roughly divided into graceful school and unrestrained school.
5. Divided by epigraph.
Yuanqu Yuanqu originated from the so-called "Fanqu" and "Le Hu" and was first circulated among the people, and was called "street poetry" or "village minor". With the destruction of Song Dynasty in Yuan Dynasty, it spread in the vast areas of north and south, centering on Dadu (now Beijing) and Lin 'an (now Hangzhou). Yuanqu has strict metrical formula, and each qupai has fixed format requirements in sentence pattern, word number, level tone and so on.
The Yuan Dynasty was the heyday of Yuanqu. Generally speaking, zaju and Sanqu are collectively called Yuan Qu, which is the main body of literature in Yuan Dynasty. However, the achievements and influence of Yuan Zaju far exceeded that of Sanqu, so some people called Yuan Zaju "Yuan Qu" or "Yuan Qu".
Although Yuan Qu has a fixed frame, it is not rigid, allowing it to be interspersed in the fixed frame, adding sentences to some qupai, and allowing flat lines to pass through the rhyme, which is more flexible than quatrains and Song Ci. Therefore, readers can find that two songs with the same "Qupai" sometimes have different words, which is the reason (the one with the least words in the same Qupai is the standard frame).
Yuanqu is another literary prosperity after Tang poetry and Song poetry, and it has its unique charm: on the one hand, Yuanqu inherits the beauty and gracefulness of poetry; On the one hand, in the Yuan Dynasty, the soldiers and soldiers were placed in the position of "eight prostitutes, nine men and ten beggars", and the political monopoly and social darkness made Song Yuan radiate extremely dazzling fighting brilliance and reveal rebellious feelings; Sharp-edged pointed at the drawbacks of society, denounced the society that "not reading is the highest, illiteracy is the best, and people who are not sensible are bragging", and pointed at the world trend that "everyone is embarrassed to live, and no one can see the money". The works describing love in Yuan Qu are also more inflammatory and bold than the poems of past dynasties. All these are enough to keep the artistic charm of Yuanqu forever.
The rise of Yuanqu has a far-reaching influence and outstanding contribution to the development of China's national poetry and cultural prosperity. As soon as Yuanqu appeared, just like other artistic flowers, it immediately showed great vitality. It is not only a convenient tool for literati to express their feelings, but also provides a brand-new art form to reflect the social life of the Yuan Dynasty.
The rise of Yuanqu represented the highest achievement of literature in this period. As far as it is concerned, it is because Yuanqu established and perfected the system form. Flexion system is embodied in the following six aspects:
1. Gongdiao: Gongdiao refers to the mode of ancient music in China. Quhe Gongdiao originated from Yan Yue in Sui and Tang Dynasties. There are five palaces and four tones commonly used in North and South music, commonly known as Nine Palaces or South Nine Palaces, including Gong Zheng, Lv Zhong Palace, Lu Nan Palace, Lv Xian Palace, Huangzhong Palace (Five Palaces), Broad-faced Tone, Double Tone, Upgraded Tone and Yuediao Tone (four tones). The number of opera episodes and Sanqu episodes in Yuan Qu is connected by two different tunes in the same palace tune.
2. Qupai: commonly known as "Quzi", it is the general name of various tunes, each with a proper name, such as Dianjiang Lip and Shanpo Sheep. There were 335 Qupai in North China in Yuan Dynasty, and each Qupai had a certain tune and singing method. At the same time, it also stipulates the number of words, syntax, level and so on. Accordingly, you can fill in new lyrics. Most of the lyrics come from the folk, and some of them are developed from the lyrics. So the name of the lyrics is the same as the lyrics, but the content is not exactly the same. There are also music cards specially designed for performances, but most of them only have tunes without lyrics.
3. Rhyme: In terms of rhyme, Yuanqu strictly abides by the requirements of the nineteen parts of Zhongyuan Rhyme, which are divided into flat, upper and lower. Rhyme has the following characteristics: level tone, not avoiding heavy rhyme, one rhyme to the end, borrowing rhyme, dark rhyme, redundant rhyme and lack of rhyme.
4. Flat: Qu is more strict in using words than poetry, paying special attention to the flat of the last sentence of each sentence.
5, antithesis: the antithesis of songs requires more freedom, which can be flat and even, that is, flat and even. There are thirteen dual forms in Qu, such as "two-character pair", "head-tail pair" and "line pair", which have many characteristics in language use and word order combination, mainly as follows: there are work pairs and wide pairs, but the phenomenon of wide pairs is more common; Self-righteous in the sentence; Intricate pairs or inverted sentences, such as "loyal ministers are not afraid of death, and fear of death means disloyalty to them"; Say yes in the common saying.
6. Links: The most significant difference between songs and words is whether there are links, songs with links and words without links. The so-called "interlude" refers to the words added beyond the number of words required by the melody. Not limited by melodies such as phonemes, parallelism and sentence patterns, lines are generally used at the beginning of sentences.
There are more than 220 writers of Yuan Qu, and more than 4,500 works (collections and parts) have been handed down to this day, including more than 3,800 poems (including singers), more than 470 collections and more than 60 zaju (books)/kloc-0. Among many writers, Yuan Haowen, who made a pioneering contribution to the formation of Yuan Qu, was born at the time of the war in Jin and Yuan Dynasties, and was a superstar in the poetic circles of Jin and Yuan Dynasties. His works are clean and handsome, which has played an enlightening, guiding and standardizing role in Yuan Qu creation.
Editing this romantic novel1From the middle of the 6th century to the 20th century, it is another peak period of novel creation and dissemination in China's novel history after the Ming Dynasty. At this time, many great and excellent novels of the Ming Dynasty were reprinted and spread more widely. Literati writers in Qing Dynasty also created a large number of great and excellent novels, among which A Dream of Red Mansions by Cao Xueqin, Scholars by Wu and Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio by Pu Songling are outstanding representatives. Their appearance marks the highest achievement of China's ancient vernacular novels and classical Chinese novels. Judging from the history of literary development, the literature of the Qing Dynasty can not be separated from the names of these three works. Catalogue [hides] the development stages of overall achievements and artistic contributions.
The overall achievement of this period of novel editing in Qing Dynasty reflects a broader life, and figures from feudal ruling groups and working people at the bottom of society appear in the works. Storytelling is often carried out in the scenes of daily life, and the style of description has gradually evolved from thick lines to thin lines. For example, A Dream of Red Mansions is an encyclopedia of China's feudal social life. Its brushwork almost criticized the entire feudal superstructure and the entire feudal ruling class, vividly and predictably reflecting the inevitable decline and collapse of feudal society. On the other hand, The Scholars ingeniously chose the perspective of intellectuals as a social stratum, and brilliantly exposed the drawbacks of the imperial examination system through the description of their life experiences and spiritual realm. Some works take the peasant uprising as the theme, reflecting and praising the resistance and struggle of the oppressed and exploited people. And The Officialdom in the Sky, etc., by depicting the image of feudal officials, vividly attacked the decline and darkness of officialdom. Some works showed progressive democratic ideas, such as the yearning and pursuit of equality between men and women or the ideal of women's liberation, which were precious at that time.
Many outstanding novels in Qing Dynasty gained ideological depth not only because of their serious creative attitude, but also because of their artistic expression. Their authors focus on life and society, and when they reproduce the life in feudal society artistically, there are both calm analysis and angry protests.
Editors' artistic contribution to the style of novels in Qing Dynasty is rich and colorful, and great progress has been made. Among the short stories in classical Chinese, some works combine the styles and techniques of strange stories in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties and legendary novels in Tang Dynasty, while others combine stories with arguments to form a pattern of "notes+novels". The appearance of China's classical novels is a new variety in the novel garden. Vernacular short stories inherited the tradition of Song and Yuan Dynasties, and were deeply influenced by "three words and two beats", and more albums appeared. In the field of vernacular novels, some original styles continue to be popular and there are new trends. The spread of works such as "The Legend of the Ghost" and "The Scholars" means the establishment of satirical novels, especially the appearance of "The Scholars". As Lu Xun said in A Brief History of Chinese Novels, "There are satirical books in the Ministry". Unfortunately, satirical novels have gone downhill and gradually been replaced by "condemnation novels" and shady novels. On the one hand, A Dream of Red Mansions has broken the rules and regulations of previous novels of gifted scholars and beautiful women, with thousands of books. On the other hand, when describing family and love life, his works are full of poetic brilliance, which washes away all kinds of filth brought by novels in the late Ming Dynasty and sets a good example for human novels. However, the last trend of human novels inevitably evolved into narrow and evil novels. All kinds of novels are more or less integrated with the elements of supernatural novels. In addition, the combination of historical romance novels and heroic legendary novels, and the combination of case-solving novels and chivalrous novels also constitute the characteristics of novels in the Qing Dynasty. This evolution and transformation has its own reasons, and is influenced by the times and social environment, which all reflect the regularity in the process of literary development.
It has become a temporary trend to write sequels to famous works. There are more than 30 sequels to Dream of Red Mansions alone. The narrative scope of historical romance novels has been completely supplemented, and all dynasties and generations in history have been exhausted. The accumulation of themes has also contributed to the emergence of some comprehensive works, such as Yue Quan Zhuan and Sui and Tang Dynasties Romance, which are equivalent to the summary, adaptation and creation of previous novels with the same theme (even opera works).
In terms of language, novels in Qing Dynasty are more artistic. The language of the characters in the works pays more attention to the pursuit of individuality. In some excellent works, character language is often an artistic means to successfully reveal the characters' thoughts and personalities, which distinguishes them from other characters in the book and leaves a deep impression on readers. For example, in the third episode of A Dream of Red Mansions, when Wang Xifeng just appeared, she said a few words, exquisite and elegant, have it both ways, crying when she cried, and laughing when she was joking. She cares about Daiyu and ingratiates herself with Grandmother Jia, and suddenly presents a smart, sharp and secretive image to the readers. As for the author's narrative language, whether it is describing scenery, environment, depicting characters' actions or laying out stories, many vernacular novels have gradually got rid of cliches and become fluent and concise. The language is closer to the spoken language at that time, which is also the characteristic of many vernacular novels in Qing Dynasty. Until modern times, many people regarded A Dream of Red Mansions and Biography of Heroes of Children as teaching materials for learning Beijing dialect.
The blending of artistic expression techniques of classical Chinese novels and vernacular novels is also a new contribution of novels in Qing Dynasty to the development history of China's novels. Some classical Chinese novels, such as Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio, are influenced by Sanyan Erpai and other works, and the characters' dialogues are sometimes as clear as possible, which is completely different from the author's narrative style. Some vernacular novels, such as A Dream of Red Mansions and The Scholars, have absorbed the advantages of classical Chinese novels of past dynasties and expressed multi-level complex connotations with concise words. Their authors also tried to introduce some techniques of classical poetry with the help of classical literature literacy, which made many artistic conceptions of classical poetry appear in novel descriptions.
Novels in the Qing Dynasty created some typical characters, such as Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, Xue Baochai, Wang Xifeng,,, and, in The Scholars, Kuang and Ma Er, and Yang (Ma) in Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio. Compared with novels in Ming Dynasty, these successful characters are closer to life and shorten the distance with readers. Most of them are ordinary people in ordinary life, and readers can meet them around anytime and anywhere, so they feel amiable and credible. When describing them, the author did not deify them, let alone exaggerate them. Novels in Qing Dynasty promoted the development of China's ancient novel art from various aspects. Judging from the quality and quantity of works, especially from the overall artistic achievements, novels in Qing Dynasty can keep pace with novels in Ming Dynasty, and some even surpass novels in Ming Dynasty. If we look at the novelists of the Qing Dynasty in the whole literature of the Qing Dynasty, we can also find that their achievements far exceed the poems, words, essays and operas of the Qing Dynasty.
The interpretation of editing this essay is scattered in form rather than spirit.
Since the Six Dynasties, in order to distinguish it from verse and parallel prose, prose is generally called prose. With the evolution of literary concepts and the development of literary genres, the concept of prose is constantly changing. In some historical periods, lyrical and memorable literary works such as novels are collectively called prose, which is different from poetry that emphasizes rhythm.
Form 1. say
The floorboard of ancient argumentative articles. On the preface to the essay, it says: "The speaker explains, explains the meaning, and explains with his own meaning." Famous articles appearing in textbooks include Ma Shuo by Tang Hanyu, The Snake Catcher by Liu Zongyuan, Ailian by Song and Zhou Dunyi, and Borrowing Books by Huang Sheng by Yuan Mei in Qing Dynasty.
Two. table
An ancient memorial, which recorded some ideas or things, was one of the memorials presented by ancient ministers to the emperor. There is only one textbook, Liezi written by Zhuge Liang during the Three Kingdoms period. In 277 AD, Zhuge Liang prepared to attack Wei and seize the Central Plains. Before he left, he wrote this paper to the late ruler Liu Chan to express his loyalty to Shu Han and his determination to help the Han Dynasty. There is a famous sentence in the article, such as "when you are defeated, you are ordered to be in danger."
Three. Donation order
When ancient literati bid farewell, they often gave each other poems and collected them as preface, which is called preface. After that, all articles about farewell gifts are called prefaces. Most of its contents are words of praise or encouragement. What appears in the textbook is the Preface to Send Dongyang Ma Sheng by Song Lian, a writer of Ming Dynasty. In this article, Ma Sheng, a young man from his hometown, introduced his childhood learning experience and encouraged Ma Sheng to cherish his time and study hard.
Four. the Ming Dynasty
In ancient times, words carved on objects to warn themselves or praise merit were called "Ming". The inscription on the right side of the case is called "motto", and there is an inscription on "humble room" by Liu Tang Yuxi in the textbook. There are also "epitaphs" carved on stone tablets to describe the life of the deceased and eulogize the deceased, such as Han Yu's "Liu Zihou Epitaph" (not learned).
Verb (abbreviation of verb) miscellaneous notes
Include two categories:
1. A style that records scenery, trifles, feelings, etc. Describe mountains and rivers, scenery, and people, such as Little Stone Pond, Travel Notes of West Lake, and Peach Blossom Garden.
2. take notes. Mainly taking notes, it is characterized by short length, about a thousand words long and rich content. It consists of director anecdotes, anecdotes, literary essays, character essays, scientific essays, textual research, reading miscellaneous notes, etc. Such as Shi Shuo Xin Yu (It's time for teenagers, but not necessarily good) and Meng Xi's Bitan (Control insects with insects).
Travel with intransitive verbs
In fact, it is a kind of miscellaneous notes, which is singled out because it occupies a special position in miscellaneous notes: travel notes are a form of prose describing travel experiences, which can describe the beauty of famous mountains and rivers, record the customs of different regions, and express the author's thoughts and feelings. The writing style is relaxed, the language is vivid, and the account is more detailed, which gives people rich social knowledge and beautiful feelings. The famous works selected in this paper include The Three Gorges by Li Daoyuan in the Northern Wei Dynasty (with strong scientific color), Thinking with Wu Liangjun in the Southern Dynasty (about scenery writing), Little Stone Pond by Liu Zongyuan in the Tang Dynasty (about scenery writing), Yueyang Tower by Fan Zhongyan in the Song Dynasty (about scenery writing) and Night Tour in Chengtian Temple by Su Shi in the Song Dynasty.
Seven. fable
A literary work that uses fictional stories to illustrate a certain truth, thus achieving educational or satirical purposes. "Entrust" means "Entrust". Usually, profound truth is pinned on simple stories, so as to compare, borrow the small and compare the big, borrow the ancient and compare the present, and get used to using anthropomorphic techniques, and the language is concise and sharp. The fables selected in this paper include Zheng Man buying shoes in Han Feizi, carving a boat for a sword in Lv Chunqiu, and the struggle between snakes and mussels in Warring States Policy.