Giving lectures in Japan is a bold move. Even if a China scholar talks about his local knowledge, he must be bold. The reason is clear and simple. Japanese outstanding research on all aspects of China culture is recognized by the world. China scholars who are familiar with Japanese also admire and humbly adopt your achievements. They know it's not easy to talk about something new worth asking you. I am illiterate in Japan. Facing the rich treasure house of "Sinology" or "zhina Studies" in your country, I am like a poor bachelor who doesn't know the number lock and has no crowbar, so I have to look at the big safe. However, blind ignorance is often the source of courage. In Italy, there is a mocking idiom that says "He invented the umbrella" (ha inventato I 'ombrello). It is said that one day in the backcountry, a bumpkin was walking on the road when it suddenly began to rain lightly. He happened to be holding a stick and a cloth. He was resourceful and covered his head with a cloth, so that he didn't get soaked and go home. While appreciating himself, he also feels that he has made contributions to mankind and should be made public. He heard that there was a "patent office for registered inventions" in the city, so he rushed to the city with sticks and cloth to report and perform his new inventions in that office. The staff in the bureau smiled and took out an umbrella for him to take a closer look. Today, I am like the country bumpkin who went to the registration office. I am ignorant and have never seen an umbrella. But when there is no shelter under the eaves, it is still an effective method to rely on cloth strips for emergency.
Nietzsche once compared the crying of hens when laying eggs with the singing of poets, saying that both were caused by "pain" (der sehmerzmacht huhner und dichter gackern) t1]. This familiar image metaphor is also in line with a popular view in China's literary tradition: pain can produce poetry more than happiness, and good poetry is mainly the expression and venting of unhappiness, distress or "poverty". In ancient China, this opinion was frequently discussed not only in poetry theory, but also in writing practice. Therefore, we are used to hearing familiar stories and forgetting each other. We didn't put it forward as an important concept in China's literary criticism. I will only give some of the most common examples to illustrate.
"The Analects of Confucius Ji's" says: "Poetry can flourish, be observed, be grouped, and be resentful"; "Resentment" is only one of the four functions, and it is the last one. The Preface to Poetry pays equal attention to the voice of managing the world, the complaints in troubled times and the thoughts of national subjugation. History of Arts and Literature of Han Dynasty says "poetry expresses ambition", but it is also impartial: "Therefore, there is a sense of sadness and joy, and there is a sound of singing." Sima Qian was probably the first person who didn't take care of both sides. The Book of Appointment and the Preface to Historical Records describe great works from ancient times to the present, pointing out that some were written after imprisonment, some were written after being demoted, some were difficult to write, and some were written after being physically disabled. In a word, they are all the products of unfortunate people, who have suffered poverty, disease and even punishment. He started with Zhouyi and ended with 300 Poems. He concluded that "it is probably what sages do when they are angry" and added: "This person is all depressed." That is, to put aside "happiness" and only emphasize "resentment" or "sadness" in poetry; The authors of poetry are all "somewhat depressed" sad and frustrated people, and poetry is also "generally" a sad cry or an angry cry. China's idioms seem to reflect this situation. The ancient Yuefu poem "Elegy" said: "Elegy can be used as mourning, but from a distance it can be used as angelica", and since then "Long song can be used as mourning" has been a common expression. The corresponding statement that "Long song should laugh" is missing, although someone took Li Bai's big brand and wrote a "Laughing Song". The word "Yin" of "ourtenant" is not the same as the word "Yin" of "changing new poetry into Long song".
Liu Xie once mentioned Sima Qian's views in passing, and also used a clever metaphor. "Wen Xin Diao Long Cai lue" talks about Yan Feng: "Jing Tong Ya Yan, comparable to # Sheng; Xianzhi and Preface are also mussels. " In other words, his two articles are the result of "stagnation" and "anger". Liu Xie passed it airily, but his tone was not as strong as Sima Qian's. He only talked about one person and did not expand. The general meaning of the pain or trouble of "illness" is not limited to the physical injury of "Zuo Qiu's blindness" mentioned by Sima Qian, but also includes mental pain such as "Kan #". "Nine Debates on Chu Ci" said: "Kan # Xi is poor and refuses to accept his duty." There was a man named Liu in the Northern Dynasties. He also thought that suffering can stimulate talents. He used four metaphors in one breath, one of which happened to be exactly the same as that of Liu in the Southern Dynasties. Liu Zhou's Liu Jizi Tong: "The stalk rises and falls into a brocade tumor, and the clam holds the bright moon and pearl. When a bird is excited, it can fly in the clouds, and an arrow can fly over the snow-covered mountains. They are still treasures of plain text, and they are lofty because of excitement. " Later generations answered Li Duanshu with a stone, saying, "Wood has a gall, stone has a halo, rhinoceros has a connection, so as to win the glory of others, and everything is ill", which is nothing more than saying that it is still plain text. Although it can't be compared with "mussels hold each other's pearls", "wood has a gall" is just a stalk. It is purely coincidental for westerners to talk about literary creation. Franz Balcer said that poetry is like die Perle (das erzeugnis des kranken stillen mussels) produced by sick and silent shellfish. Flaubert thinks that these beads are formed by the illness of oysters (la perle est une maladie de I'hui tre), but the author's style is a deeper expression of pain (1'é cou-lemon d 'une douleur plus profonde) [3]. Heine asked: Is poetry to people what beads are to poor oysters? Is it a harmful substance that makes them suffer? A.E. houseman said that poetry is a secret, whether it is a natural secretion, like the resin of pine trees (like turtles in fir trees) or a pathological secretion, like pearls in oysters [5]. It seems that this metaphor is very popular. It is precisely because it is very apt that "poetry can complain" and "doing things in a rage". However, the sentence in Wen Xin Diao Long seems to have never won the appreciation it deserves. Sima Qian listed a series of "resentful" works, some argued and some recorded, and finally attributed "300 Poems" to "resentment" as an example. As far as poetry is concerned, Zhong Rong gave full play to this meaning. There is a passage in the preface to poetry that we have never paid attention to. "Jia will send poems to kiss and leave poems to complain. As for Chen Chu's defection to the country, Han Yu resigned and entered the palace; Or the bones are horizontal, and the soul is chasing the canopy; Or negative Ge Waishu, killing the public side, stuffing the guest's clothes list, widowed tears; Or a scholar who has thanked her for going out to the DPRK and forgetting her rebellion, a woman who has been favored by moths, and hopes to return to China again. How can all kinds of responses, the soul of feeling, and non-Chen poems show their meaning? Why not Long song? Therefore, the Japanese say,' Poetry can be resentful.' It is nothing more than poetry to let the poor live a comfortable life and live a secluded life! "Strange to say, this passage is almost the outline of Jiang Yan's two famous works, Biefu and Hate Fu. Zhong Rong does not talk about "prosperity" and "prospect". Although he talks about "group", the overwhelming examples are "resentment", and only "Jiahui" and "being in favor" are indisputably within the range of pleasure or joy. Maybe "indisputable" is too much. "A moth into a pet" probably has a side of distress or resentment. For example, after Wen (volume 139) and Li Sifu resented "entering", "flesh and blood are close relatives, farewell forever!" Therefore, "bullying tears"; Before A Dream of Red Mansions 18, didn't Jia Fei also sigh, "Although wealth and flesh are separated, there is no interest"? At the same time, according to the theme of the contemporary famous drama Wang Zhaojun, "Han concubine's resignation to the palace" is by no means "resentment", at least it can be regarded as a "group", and it is simply a good marriage "Jiahui", happily going to the Hu people to "raise moths and get favor". However, when reading these ordinary words in poetry, it seems that you don't need such a profound vision, just like in daily social life, you don't need a fluorescent perspective to look at people and things. At the end of the preface, a series of examples are cited. Apart from the lost chapters and general themes, more than half of them can be said to be "resentment" poems. As for the evaluation of Li Ling in "Top Grade": "If life is not harmonious, the sound is broken and the ling is not bitter, why is it so far!" More clearly pointed out the so-called "poetry will be poor and then work" [6]. There is another point that cannot be ignored. The same thing, Sima Qian used as an antiseptic solution for the dead, but Zhong Rong thought it was a painkiller and sedative for the living. Sima Qian's "Zhi Ren Shu" only talks about "relieving anger" and writes poems, with the purpose of avoiding "the name is obliterated" and "the literary talent is not obvious to future generations", focusing on the role of the works behind the author, which can make it die and be immortal. Zhong Rong said: "it is nothing more than poetry to make the poor live in seclusion"; It emphasizes the role of works in the author's life, which can make him compromise to the hard and lonely life. In other words, if a person is frustrated, he can rely on "poetry to complain" and get relief, comfort or compensation. Everyone is familiar with Freud's famous theory: people who can't satisfy their desires in real life, when they die, take a step back, create literature and art, play a role as a substitute (Ersatz für den Tri-ebverzicht), and enjoy themselves through fantasy (Phantas iebefriedigungen)[7]. If there is Freud's theory in Zhong Rong's three sentences, it may not be far-fetched, but please pay attention to their deja vu.
At a certain point, Zhong Rong and Freud can talk, but Han Yu and Sima Qian sometimes don't get along. Preface to seeing off Meng Dongye is an article included in the old Selected Ancient Poems, which is read by scholars. Han Yu declared at the beginning: "When everything is uneven, there must be sound. ..... The essence of human voice is word, word is word, and its essence is also "; Take Zhuang Zhou, Qu Yuan, Sima Qian, Xiang Ru and other great writers as examples of "good singing", and then solemnly invite the protagonist: "Meng Jiao Dongye started singing with his poems." It is generally believed that the meaning of "grievances are heard" and "anger" is the same; Actually, what Han Yu and Sima Qian said are two different things. Sima Qian's "anger" is "injustice" or what is usually called "resentment"; Han Yu's "injustice" and "grievance" are not equal. It refers not only to anger, but also to joy. Psychology since the pre-Qin period has always advocated that the primitive state of human "sex" is calm, "emotion" is calm and disturbed, and sex is "unequal" but emotional. There are two sentences in Yue Ji: "beginning of life is quiet, and things move", which is very representative. Both Taoist and Buddhist classics compare water to waves caused by wind [8]. This metaphor was later borrowed by Confucianism as its own. Under the sentence of "the nature of destiny" in The Doctrine of the Mean, Dr. He You, who was quoted by Confucius in Justice, said: "Sex and love are like waves and water, water is static, waves are moving, sex is static and love is moving." Li Ao, a disciple of the poor school, said in the first article of Renaturation Book: "He who loves others is moved by sex. The water gurgles in the sand, the pure are muddy, and the good are evil. Even Song Rucheng's Yichuan Language (Volume 18 of Henan Ercheng's suicide note), which is deeply afraid of contact with the Buddha, does not avoid suspicion: "Zhan Ran is as quiet as a mirror, and the nature of water is also. When you get to the sand or uneven terrain, it will be bumpy or popular, and it will be rough. This is not the nature of water! ..... But, without water, waves, and peace without sex? " Maybe we should put this sentence of Han Yu in this "language world" to understand its meaning. According to the ancient psychology, no matter what emotion means that "sex" has temporarily lost its original calm, not only anger is a disturbance to "sex", but joy is also like "surging" or "surging" water. Therefore, a passage in Han Yu's Preface to Master Gao Xian should be read as follows: "Happiness and poverty, sadness and sorrow, resentment and hope, drunkenness and annoyance, injustice must be expressed in cursive script"; "Motion" and "injustice" are affirmative and negative statements of the same state of affairs, and they are restatements and generalizations of emotions such as anger and sadness. Just look at the end of "Farewell to Meng Dongye": "I don't know the heavenly generals, I don't know the voice of the heavenly generals, do you want to make the country rich and strong?" "Do you want to starve yourself, worry about your heart and make yourself miserable?" Obviously, success and "singing bad country" and frustration and "singing bad country" are "unequal singing bad country". Han Yu takes care of both sides here, just like when Han Shu Literature and Art Annals talks about "singing", it also talks about "sorrow and joy", instead of "anger" like Sima Qian. Some critics criticized Han Yu's words [9], which seems to be confused with "anger" because their understanding of "unfairness" is very narrow. Huang Tingjian has a poem: "The world is ups and downs, only wine is available, and sorrows and joys can be sung in poetry at any time" (Volume XIII of Valley Collection, one of the Expressions of Jade Rhymes in South China); The source of the next sentence is the preface to See Meng Dongye.
He could have written "when he was poor and hungry, he sang it with poetry" or "when he was against the times, he sang it with poetry" and so on, but he used the word "sadness and joy" to express "injustice", which is also a sensible good reader.
Han Yu's definition of the concept of "poetry is reprehensible" is indeed clearer than that of his predecessors, and that is in his Preface to Singing Poems in Jingtan. This article is a compliment to two big bureaucrats who wrote poems. Like-please pay attention! -Poems praising them can be comparable to poor scholars, and "princes and nobles" can be "comparable to the gaunt people in Weibo". The implication is to take the poems of "withered men" as the test standard, because there is a major premise: "the voice of peace is weak, while the voice of sorrow is dull, the words of joy are hard to work, and the words of poverty are easy to be good." Wang Wei's Book of the Whole Song Dynasty with Brothers and Monks: "If you don't complain about your thoughts, it will be dull", which means "the voice of peace is weak". Therefore, the poetry of poor scholars is the balance of poetry. Praising "princes and nobles" is also raising "gaunt men"; Compliment without flattery, sophistication without snobbery, it is difficult to be so measured in articles that entertain big bureaucrats. Sima Qian and Zhong Rong only said that poverty makes people write poems and write good poems, while Wang Wei only said that it is not good not to complain or write. Han Yu added the negative words, saying that although happiness also makes people write poems, they will not write very good or best poems. With this complement, the topic is meaningless. Han Yu's major premise has certain factual basis. We might as well say that although the poems of "poor words" are not necessarily better than those of "music words" in quality, the good poems of "poor words" are indeed more than the good poems of "music words" in quantity. Because there are many good poems of "poor words", it is problematic in reasoning to assert that only "poor words" constitute good poems. Han Yu made a logical mistake. However, his mistakes are not very serious, and he can also find famous accomplices, such as/kloc-several romantic poets in the 9 th century. In the usual anthology we read when we were students, we read the following famous sentences: "Our sweetest poems are those that tell the saddest thoughts"; "True poetry is just a burning heart, which comes from deep pain" (Undes Kommt das Echtelied/Eizigausdemenschen Herzen/Das Eitiefesleid Durchgluht); "The most beautiful poems are the most desperate, and some immortal chapters are pure tears" (Les Plus Dé sé spé ré s Sontles Chantles Plus Beaux,/et j 'en Sais d 'immortel quixont de Purs Sanglotts) [10]. Nietzsche and Freud mentioned above. Croce, who praised Nietzsche but disapproved of Freud, also admitted that poetry is the product of "unsatisfactory things" (La poesia, come e stato ben detto, nascedal "desirrio in soda fatto") [11]; WalterMuschg, a Swiss scholar who admired Freud's writing style, even wrote a large book "History of Tragedy", which proved that poetry is often a kind of hidden distress (fast immer, wenn auch of verhüllt, eine Formdes Leidens)[ 12], but unfortunately he didn't hear the opinions of the ancient people in China.
No one wants to taste sadness-if he can avoid it; No one is unwilling to make beautiful poems-even if he lacks talent; No one wants to save trouble-besides, he won't hurt others. Since "poor words are easy to be good", if you want to write a good poem, you must say "poor words". Unfortunately, only "haggard people" can say "poor words" in Bai Juyi's "Reading Li Du Fu's Poems": "You can't be in a high position, but you still take pains; In the old days, people hated each other, and they were sad all over the world. ..... God wants you to know that the world needs poetry. " To do a good poem, you have to go through such troubles as humiliation and separation. This price is not low, and not everyone who writes poetry is willing to pay. So there is a long-standing situation: poets try to write good poems without paying the price or hoping to reduce the price. Young people write poems about "sighing for the old", rich people write poems about "poverty", and people who live a leisurely life write poems about "hurting spring" and "sorrowing for autumn". For example, Shi commented on Kou Zhun's poem in Hunan Annals: "When you are rich, you are sad and resentful. ..... I taste that I am deeper than a poet. I want to admire the poet's sense of grief and indignation and take it as a warning. " This is not surprising; Language and writing have this social function. We often use words instead of actions, fabricate facts and cover up our thoughts and feelings. It is worth noting that in poetry, this fictional function is often biased towards one side. It often reports sadness rather than good news, and most of them show "sad voice" rather than "peaceful voice", like crocodile tears, rather than crocodile "gentle smiling jaws" in Alice in Wonderland. I think of the sentence describing beauty in Liu Yuxi's "Sange Ci": "There should be no hate, but it has become sorrow"; In tradition, a poet doesn't hate things but worries about things, which shows that he is talented, just as a traditional beauty doesn't hate things but worries about things, which shows that he is "attractive" [13]. Li Zhi read Sima Qian's sentence "What he did when he was angry" and said with emotion: "From this point of view, the ancient sages didn't do it unless they were angry. Do not be angry, such as rustling, moaning without illness. Despite what you think! " (Book Burning, Volume III, Preface to Loyalty and Water Margin) "Ancient" cannot be recalled, nor can ordinary poets become "sages" or "saints", and "moaning without illness" has become a phenomenon that cannot be ignored in literary life. That is to say, Liu Xie pointed out long ago: "The heart is not boring, ... This is to create feelings for the sake of literature" ("Wen Xin Diao Long Love"), or what Fan Chengda ridiculed: "Poets stir up leisure and create worries behind closed doors" (Shi Hu Shi Hua Volume 17 "Lu Wu Guan wrote" Spring Sorrow ",which is very sad, and vice versa. Didn't Er Liu in the Northern and Southern Dynasties say that "a clam becomes a pearl when it is ill" and "a clam gives birth to a furuncle and a clam holds a pearl"? Poets "groan when they are not sick", just like children who play truant, want to be "politics" and are pretending to be sick. Groaning without illness contains a hope that if there is such a cheap or lucky thing, a fake illness will produce a real pearl. Whether a fake disease can be fake or not, and whether a fake bead can be fake or not, may depend on skill or art. Poetry was once listed as "Die Drei Tau Schungen" with metaphysics and politics [15], which is not unreasonable. Of course, the poet is also deceiving himself.
I just want to give three examples. The first situation is that a famous poet criticizes another famous poet. Zhang Lei made fun of Qin Guan and said, "Most articles in the world come from the poor, so the articles of later generations are like the words of the poor. That's what Qin Zi's carefree people say, right? " ("Zhang You Shi Wenji" Volume 51 "Sending Qin Guan to Suzhou and Hangzhou for Learning"). The second case is the confession of a famous poet. Xin Qiji's Ugly Slave admits: "Teenagers don't know the taste of sorrow, fall in love with the building, fall in love with the building, and insist on expressing their sorrow for assigning new words. Now that I know what it's like to be sad, I want to say I still have a rest, but I want to say I still have a rest, but I know it's a cool autumn. "The first half is about moaning without illness and not being angry at work, and the second half is about another fact in life and writing. Silence-whether you say it or not-usually means and implies extreme ("exhausted") severe "disease" pain and extremely deep sadness and anger. The third case is about a writer whose name is unknown. A man named Li wrote a poem with a hundred rhymes and sent it to his boss for advice. The boss read a couplet in it: "My brother is in the south of the Yangtze River and my brother died in the north!" " Very moved and deeply sympathetic, he said, "I didn't expect your family to be so fierce!" ""Li stood up and replied respectfully, "There is no such thing, but the painting is in kind." "The story spread and became a joke. Someone continued with two sentences: "I only wish for good poetry, and I am not afraid of double mourning" (volume 32 of Tao Shuo Jiao, volume 4 of Fan Dunzhai's Leisure and Kong Qi's Integrity). Obviously, people surnamed Li write poems according to the principle of "poor words are easy to be good". They know very well that poems should be written in detail and their feelings should be reflected in actual events. If the boss hadn't asked questions on the spot, our later researchers, influenced by positivism, might not have thought that Li's Words of Worry-Free People were there. However, some ordinary people are tired of reading such works. A "Shu prostitute" in the Southern Song Dynasty wrote a poem "Que Qiao Xian" to her lover: "You say alliance, you say vows, you say love words, and you are full of spring worries. I should read more "Empty Classics". Who taught me? " (Qi Dong Yu Ye, Volume XI); "Vacancy" means lying down [16]. There are two sentences in Heine's love poem that can be used for reference: "People in the world don't believe in the flame of love, but only think it is the words in the poem." (Diese welt glaubt nicht an Flammen,/Undsie Nimmt's fü r poesie) [17] Perhaps "Spring Sorrow" and "Flame of Love" are the words of the author, and readers often just need to listen to them. In the study of literature, we seem to have recovered our innocence and honesty as children. We take the black words on white paper seriously, and sometimes we encounter "empty classics", which is also regarded as a historical record. Of course, there are different patterns of "empty classics", not only many lyric poems, such as confessions, memoirs, travel notes and even history, but also can be classified into this category. I said at the beginning that "Poetry can complain" was a literary proposition in ancient China. In the process of talking nonsense, I dabbled in modern western times. This is a natural thing. When we talk about the west and modern times, we will unconsciously go as far as China, dating back to ancient times. The research objects of humanities are interrelated and infiltrated with each other, which not only cross national boundaries, keep pace with the times, but also run through different disciplines. Due to the severe limitations of human intelligence and life, for the sake of convenience, we can only circle the research field narrower and narrower, and divide the specialized disciplines more and more finely. Besides, there's nothing I can do. Therefore, becoming an expert in a certain subject is subjective satisfaction, but it is objective necessity. "Poetry can complain" also involves bigger problems. In ancient times, poetry was criticized, emphasizing "poor words", and music appreciation in ancient times was also "mainly based on sadness" [18]; Do these two similar traditions have the same psychological basis? Tragedy has always been despised by modern new critics as something undesirable [19], but the dominant theory in history holds that this kind of drama is greater than comedy [20]; Do traditional views and depressing "happy words" have the same psychological basis? A meticulous literary researcher can ignore these problems, but he might as well admit their existence.
Self-injection
[1] This is what Zarathustra said (also called sprachZarathustra). Part IV, edited by K. Schlechta, Niji (1955), Volume II, page 527.
[2] See Zhao Yi's "History of Oubei" Seven-word Law III "Wen Xinyu's Jing Di Disease" II: "Without the article, the stone can be a disaster"; Gong Zizhen's "Broken Grass" rolled down "Interpretation": "Without Liu Zhang, I was sick, and I can't talk too much."
[3] These two examples are quoted in the 3rd edition of "Tragische Literaturgeschichte" by Walter Muschg (1957) on page 415.
[4] On Romanticism (Die Romantische Schvul), Volume 2, Section 4, Heine's Poems and Letters (East Berlin, 196 1), Volume 5, Page 98.
[5] The Name and Nature of Poetry, edited by J Carter, houseman's Essays (196 1), 194 pages. Houseman immediately said that all his poems were written when he was "in poor health". His so-called "nature" is equal to "healthy, not morbid". Giosuè Carducci denounced romantics for describing poetry as "the secret of nature" emotionally. See Sai Bu (n. busetto) Josue El Galduzzi (1958), p. 492; His so-called "nature" is equal to "handwriting, no artistic thinking." The "unnatural (pathological) secretion" in the former sense may also be the "natural (unprocessed) secretion" in the latter sense.
[6] See "Pipe Taper" on page 935-937.
[7] The Complete Works of Freud (London, 1950) Volume 14, pages 355 and 433. [8] See "Pipe Taper"121-1212.
[9] See Shen Zuozhe's Yu Jian, Hong Mai's Rong Zhai Essays, Qian Daxin's Selected Works of Tang Dynasty, Li Nanjian's Preface to Poetry, and Xie's Teng Fu.
Shelley's To a Lark; Cerna's poems; Miao Sai's La NuitdeMai.
[1 1] On Poetry (LaPoesia) 5th Edition (1953) 158.
[12] History of Tragedy 16.
[13] Wu Zeng's Notes on Gaizhai (Volume 16) Wang Fudao's Huanxisha: "Dumplings are idle and desolate" is the semantics of Liu Yuxi.
[14] Fan Chengda's poem says: "There are many things", while Wang Fu's word says "nothing", which is literally the opposite and has the same meaning. The meaning of a single word constitutes the meaning of the whole sentence and is dominated by it; There is a circular relationship between the part and the whole. See page 169- 172 of pipe taper compilation; L. Spitzer's Linguistics and Literary History speaks for itself, and D. Freeman's Linguistics and Lite-Rare Style (1970) is 36-38 pages.
[15] jean paul's "Vorschule der Aesthetik" is quoted from Thomas Sored's "The Complete Works of jean paul" (1965), Volume 5, Page 193, Section 52.
[16] agrees with "air conditioning". "Jing" is where the Buddha is, and where there is "Jing", there must be a Buddha; In the volume of Xuanhe Legacy, Song Huizong named Li Shishi and said, "Is there a wave saying that the son of heaven is empty of Buddha?"
[17] Heine's New Gedichitz No.35, Poetry and Letters No.230 1 Volume.
[18] See "Pipe Taper" on page 946-949.
[19] For example, Alain Robbe-Grillet's Pouroun Nouveau Roman (1963) quoted roland barthes on page 55, see pages 66-67.
[20] Hegel may be an important exception, he put comedy above tragedy; See Proa's Karl Marx and World Literature (1976), p. 270, and the two sections referred to in note 99.