The English Revolution of 1640~ 1648 shook the throne of feudalism and established the primitive model of the bourgeoisie and the state. After the revolution, British capitalism developed rapidly and became the most advanced country in Europe.
In France, the Huguenot War (1562~ 1598) has ended, and a powerful centralized monarchy was established, which reached its peak in the middle of the17th century when Louis XIV was in power. /kloc-in the 0 th and 7 th centuries, the absolute monarchy in France was formed under the condition that capitalism developed enough to compete with aristocratic forces. The monarch ostensibly manipulated it as a mediator, but in fact both sides relied on it. Relying on the traditional power of the nobility as the foundation of the feudal regime, relying on the rich wallet of the bourgeoisie to maintain a huge army and make ends meet the palace luxury expenses. In order to gain the support of the bourgeoisie, the kingship adopted the policy of valuing commerce, colonizing and rewarding national industries, and opened some political rights to the bourgeoisie by selling officials and titles. The big bourgeoisie also made efforts in the direction of aristocratization and became the aristocrat in Paoze.
Outside Britain and France, the feudal forces in Europe strengthened their reactionary rule, and some countries experienced historical retrogression. The Catholic church used the inquisition to oppose reform and rule people's minds; List "banned books" and stifle all progressive publications; Persecute new thinkers with extremely cruel punishments such as the stake. Catholicism also uses institutions like the Jesuits; Appearing as a new church, manipulating the education system and cultural concepts.
The reactionary forces of feudal religion are particularly harmful in Spain and Italy. Spain was the richest country in Europe in 15 and 16 centuries. But soon, it collapsed and declined. The kingship relies on the support of the army and the Catholic Church to strengthen reactionary rule. Catholic reactionary forces were once rampant. Italy was once the earliest developed region of capitalism in Europe, and the grand occasion of literature and art reached an unprecedented level. However, the change of the world trade route has dealt a fatal blow to its economy, suffering from foreign aggression for a long time, leading to the decline of Italian people's livelihood culture, and the Catholic reactionary forces are even greater than Spain.
There are many similarities between the fates of Germany and Italy. The devastating 30-year war (16 18~ 1648) brought great disasters to the people. By the end of the war, Germany was torn apart and devastated, the whole country was paralyzed, and its economy and culture were backward for a long time.
/kloc-the rampant Catholic reactionary forces in the 0/7th century brought serious consequences to the European ideological and cultural circles. In the European literary world from 65438 to the beginning of 07 century, humanistic literature still occupied a very important position, and the realistic trend of thought in the Renaissance was still developing. Shakespeare and Cervantes, two great Renaissance writers, both died in 16 16, and Vega died in 1635.
Ben Jonson, the successor of Shakespeare, wrote many realistic plays. Vega's students and followers such as Gillian de Castro (1569~ 163 1) inherited the realistic style of the Renaissance.
However, the new phenomenon in the history of European literature in the17th century is the rise of baroque style and classicism. Although the counter-attack of the reactionary forces of the feudal Catholic Church failed to destroy the basic achievements of the Renaissance, it caused people's ideological confusion and spiritual depression. Baroque style in European literature and art is the concrete manifestation of this spiritual consciousness. "Baroque" was originally Portuguese, meaning strange and wonderful. In literature, it refers to exaggerated and colorful algae ornaments, the light of temples and colorful styles. The usual theme of baroque literature is religious fanaticism, and human beings are powerless in the face of the cruel majesty of God. He is used to expressing tragic depression in extremely chaotic and fragmented forms, and playing with elegance with exaggerated and carved words and riddled words.
Baroque literature spread from Italy and Spain to Britain and France. The representative of Italian Baroque Literature is marino School. Marino (1569~ 1625) has a wide range of knowledge and a deep memory. He quoted words from classical works in his works, which is famous for his relaxed and concise poems and sonorous rhythm. The shortcoming of his works is that he uses exaggerated words to spread the sadness of life.
The representative school of Spanish baroque literature is Gongla School. Gonggela (156 1~ 1627) was once a priest in the court. He advocates the combination of gorgeous poetic language and obscure ideas. Later, French artificial literature was introduced from marino, Italy, and became popular after being advocated by Madame Lampuzzi's salon. There is a metaphysical school in Britain, and the representative figure is the mystic poet john donne (1571~1631). He interweaves mysterious religious feelings with pornography and militancy.
Calderon (1600~ 168 1) is a famous baroque writer in western Europe in the17th century. He was a court playwright and a court priest, and won the title of poet. There are more than 200 kinds of his plays, with Life as a Dream as the representative work, which shows contempt for life and fanaticism for religion, and is a typical baroque work. The preface of "Life is like a dream" is described in Twilight. Prisoners in dark barren hills, bare cliffs and dark towers sighed heavily: being born is a sin, and being born in the world is a sin. The prisoner was originally a Polish prince, because astrologers said that he would grow up to be a cruel monarch and be imprisoned in the tower by his father. Later, my father doubted the astrologer's statement and asked him to come out and have a try. The prince's behavior made the king think he was really cruel and heartless, so he imprisoned him again. Finally, he realized that everything in life was a dream. When they broke the prison and let him out, he didn't bear a grudge against the closely guarded jailer. Because the guards carry out the king's orders; The revolutionary fighters who liberated him were severely punished because they violated the king's orders. Calderon not only preaches Christianity, but also preaches loyalty to the king, which embodies the characteristics of Spanish Baroque.
/kloc-German culture in the 0/7th century was backward, with few literary works and baroque colors. Among them, Grimmelshausen (1622~ 1676)' s biography of the idiot Nishimura is the most outstanding work that has won the world reputation. This is an autobiographical vagrant novel. The protagonist Ximu lives at the bottom of society and suffers from suffering and humiliation in the long war. In addition to describing real life, the novel is also interspersed with fantastic plots, such as the devil's ball, the story of Jupiter, the madman, and the bizarre plot of heaven and earth. Finally, the hero Ximu converted to God and bid farewell to this miserable world safely.
Baroque literature has a wide influence. The works of the most outstanding French and British writers in the17th century have traces of Baroque, such as Gao Naiyi, Racine, Milton and Marvel Comics.
/kloc-the most important trend of thought in Europe in the 0/7th century is classicism. It originated in France at the beginning of this century and has always influenced other European countries at the beginning of19th century.
French classicism is the product of absolute monarchy, and its primary feature is a distinct tendency to serve absolute monarchy. France was the most powerful centralized autocratic monarchy in Europe at that time. In order to firmly grasp the sovereignty, autocratic monarchy requires civil and military officials and ordinary people to abide by the law. It also requires the standardization of literary language and the stylization or prosody of literary style.
Ma Laibo (1555~ 1628), a poet in the era of Henry IV, first put forward that poetry should serve the kingship, the language should be clear and reasonable, and the creation should have strict rules. The French government added fuel to the flames by offering bonuses and annual salary to attract scholars to serve the kingship. During the period of Louis XIII, the French Academy was established as a national institution to implement its policies. The main task of the French Academy is to formulate and control language laws and regulations and rules of various styles, such as "three unifications".
The second characteristic of classical literature is to pay attention to rationality. Boileau, a classicist (1636 ~1711), said: "We must first love reason; Your article will always gain value and light only by reason. " At that time, the rationalism of Descartes (1596~ 1650) provided a philosophical basis for classicism. Descartes believes that reason is conscience, and everyone has it. He affirmed human rationality and advocated using rationality to suppress lust.
/kloc-in France in the 0/7th century, centralization has been formed, and autocratic monarchs require people to restrain their personal desires and attach importance to rationality and the nation. But their so-called country only refers to the king's country. Louis XIV said, "I am the country." Progressive writers, on the other hand, do not want to be restricted by this, put forward fair demands for kingship, and adopt an attitude of support and struggle.
The third characteristic of classicism is to imitate ancient times and attach importance to meter. The young nation-states in modern Western Europe have a shallow cultural foundation. In order to establish their own classical literature, they can only use the literature of ancient Greece and Rome as a model. /kloc-Since the second half of the 6th century, some writers have adopted the theme and system of classical literature in their creation, and studied ancient creative methods. In the theory and creation of French classicists in the17th century, they regarded classical works as the highest model in an all-round way, and found out the laws and rules of writing from them. In fact, these laws are not completely summarized from classic works, and some are called classics for the needs of the moment. For example, the most famous drama "Three Uniforms" is like this. Unity refers to the oneness of time, place and plot, that is to say, a play only performs one thing (clue of plot list), and the plot must take place in the same place within one day and night. Defenders of classicism say that this kind of meter originated in Greece and was stipulated by Aristotle. In fact, Aristotle only mentioned that the actions or plots in the script should be coherent and not branched, and did not make any regulations on the time and place of the plot. As Marx said: "The three unifications conceived by French playwrights in the period of Louis XIV are based on the misinterpretation of Greek drama (and its interpreter Aristotle). But, on the other hand, there is no doubt that they understand the Greeks according to their own artistic needs. "