Similar reasons. Due to the migration and promotion of primitive Indo-European tribes, primitive Indo-European languages are divided into various dialects and are the ancestors of Indo-European languages. There are many languages in the Indo-European family. Besides those languages to which Sanskrit, Greek and Latin belong, an important language is Germanic. Germanic language is divided into three branches: (1) East Germanic language, (2) Four Germanic language and (3) North Germanic language. The East Germanic language is represented by Gothic.
Has become extinct in the world. /kloc-Gothic was still spoken in Crimea in the 0 th and 7 th centuries, but it has completely disappeared today. North Germanic language is represented by old Scandinavian language, including Danish, Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic today. West Germanic languages are represented by Old English, including today's English, German, Dutch and Frisian. Compare English and Dutch, they have many synonyms, such as man, water, school, h and, warm and so on. The similarities between the two are very obvious. History of English From a historical point of view, modern English is the product of a series of national migration and conquest. The ancestors of English speakers used to live on the northern coast of Europe. The languages they speak are various dialects of Germanic language in the lower west. These dialects are very similar, so the languages of different tribes are interlinked. About the middle of the fifth century, three Germanic tribes; The Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain. History books call it the Anglo-Saxon Conquest. These invaders brought their own dialects and gradually merged into old English. By the end of the 6th century, the Celts, the original inhabitants of Britain, were either killed, driven into the mountains or enslaved. The invaders became the masters of Britain. Old English has become the language of Britain, Celtic only appears in some English place names, and very few Kelhall German has entered the English vocabulary. We can say that English was born with the Anglo-Saxon conquest of England. Around the ninth century, Britain learned about the large-scale immersion of Scandinavians. Throughout the tenth century, the Danes continued to invade; In the eleventh century, the Danish king actually ruled Britain. Due to the invasion of northern Europe, a large number of Scandinavian words have entered English vocabulary. . History books call this aggression the Danish conquest. Then, the normans invaded. Norman was originally from Scandinavia. They settled in Normandy province in northern France and adopted the French of Normandy province as their language. Norman French is a dialect of French, which is different from the French around the capital Paris. The French name of the capital is centralFrench, which is French.
Standard language. In l066, the ruler of Normandy province, the Duke of Normandy (Wili: AM), led his men to invade Britain and became the new conqueror of Britain. History books call this invasion the Norman conquest. Norman conquest had a far-reaching impact on the development of English. First of all, with the Norman conquest, Norman French became the official language of Britain. French is used in government, courts, courts and schools. The French became the ruling class in Britain. Nobles, landlords, courtiers and upper-class people all speak and write French. Literary works are also written in French. As a written language, English is almost extinct in Britain. But French has not completely replaced English. Most people in Britain still speak English. English is still a vibrant language and continues to grow and develop. But French has a great influence on English. French is poor in Germanic, followed by Latin (or Roman Romance; Rome means' Rome') Due to the Norman conquest, English absorbed a large number of French words, which greatly changed the face of English, both like Germanic and Romance. On the one hand, English retains the characteristics of Germanic language, on the other hand, it absorbs the advantages of Romance language, and the result is particularly expressive. In addition, due to the development of English itself, suffix changes gradually disappear, and "grammar" is replaced by "naturalness". With the simplification of English grammatical structure, English vocabulary and idioms are unprecedentedly rich, which is mainly due to the influence of French. Norman Conquest accelerated the transition from Old English to Middle English, and gradually transformed English from a comprehensive language into an analytical language. The history of English is usually divided into three periods; (1) Old English Period -449 to1100; (2) Middle English period-from UOO to1500; Stage (3) Modern Z. 8 1i5h, Mod E.) Period-A.D. 1500 to the present. Modern English period is divided into: (a) early modern English period-from 1500 noon to 1700, and (b) late modern English period-from 1700 to the present. There are four main dialects in Old English: (1) Northumbria dialect-the dialect north of Humber River; (2) Mercia dialect-the dialect in central England between Humber River and Thames River, (3) Kent dialect-the dialect of Zhuren people living in southeast England, and (4) West Saxon dialect-the dialect south of Thames River. Northumbria and Greece are also called Anglian dialects, which are dialects in areas where Angles live. Early Old English literary works were written in Northumbria dialect. Due to the invasion of Sta Danawi, the cultural center of Britain moved from Northumbria to Greece, and in the ninth century, it moved to Wessex, the capital of the western secret zone. On the one hand, King Alfred the Great of West Saxony resisted Danish aggression by force, on the other hand, he strongly advocated literature and education, personally organized and participated in the translation of foreign literary works and academic works, as well as the sand writing and revision of domestic literature. Through the efforts of western Saxon scribes, old English poems have been preserved. During the period of Alfred the Great, the prose works of Old English developed greatly, which were mainly written in West Saxon dialect. The vocabulary of old English is different from that of modern English, and most of them are inherent in West Germanic languages. There are also some words borrowed from other languages in old English vocabulary. . It can be seen from these words that the influence of early Roman merchants was great. With the introduction of Christianity into Britain, more Latin words entered the old English vocabulary. Kyle, who once lived in England, mastered the people's language. Few numbers enter English vocabulary, and some words held by Kyle are preserved in British place names. Middle English is between 1000 and 1200. Great changes have taken place in the structure of English, and Old English has gradually become Middle English. The northern dialect changed earlier and faster than the southern dialect, so before 1 100, the northern dialect obviously had the characteristics of middle English, while the southern dialect basically retained the face of old English until 1 150. The reason for the change is that the Danish rule and the subsequent Norman conquest completely overthrew the social and political system in Britain. In this turbulent period, language is not strictly bound by the social system and develops freely. People's creativity has also accelerated the change of language. By chauccr, I, the British national standard language began to form, and English had a relatively stable literary form. English in this period is very different from old English. Lexical changes; French has entered the English vocabulary in large numbers. For example, the following words are all from French: "rule", "judge" and so on. From 1000 to 1500, English vocabulary absorbed thousands of French vocabulary. But the core of English vocabulary is English words. For example, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs and many common nouns, verbs and adjectives have not been replaced by French words. During the Middle English period, because the Bible (deleted in July and June) was translated into Middle English, Latin words continued to enter the English vocabulary, resulting in a particularly rich synonym (ByM) in English. Ym). There are often three synonyms to express the same concept. Among these three words, one comes from old English, one from French and one from Latin. During Middle English, London dialect gradually became the national standard language and standard literary language of English. This is mainly attributed to the following writers: Joe Kong, wycliffe, Mallory and caxton. Caxton was born in 1476.
The introduction of printing into Britain promoted the standardization of English. The influence of literature and art on English: From 1500 to 1700, Middle English gradually became early modern English. On the one hand, the language itself is constantly communicating (during this period, English pronunciation has changed a lot-vowels have changed a lot; On the other hand, the Renaissance and other social, political, religious and scientific movements also promoted the transformation of English from medieval English to early modern English. The humanistic movement in the Renaissance had a great influence on English from 1500 to 1625. The British began to absorb the rich and colorful cultural wealth of ancient society and modern Europe. Humanist writers tirelessly study and study the classic works of ancient Greek and Roman literature, and try to introduce Greek vocabulary and Latin vocabulary into English vocabulary. During the Renaissance, English not only absorbed Xu from Greek and Latin.
Besides many new words, there are a large number of words borrowed from more than 50 other languages, mainly from three languages in Romans: French, Spanish and Italian. Words borrowed from French, etc During this period, due to exploration, trade and colonial activities, many new words entered the English vocabulary from all over the world. During the Renaissance, there were three great poets in England: Spencer, Shakespeare and Milton. Spencer used many English archaic words (which can be traced back to Old English or Middle English) and English dialect words in his poems to enrich English vocabulary. Shakespeare often uses 20,000 to 25,000 words in his poems and plays, 90% of which are native English, not foreign words borrowed from other languages. Shakespeare's great contribution is that he mainly used English as his mother tongue to create a variety of language forms, which fully, profoundly and beautifully expressed the thoughts and feelings of the characters. Milton absorbed a large number of Latin words and Latin grammatical structures to write his English poems, which were magnificent and powerful, making English words more expressive. These three great poets, through their creative practice, have proved that English is a good tool: English has great appeal and persuasiveness, and English is flexible and adaptable enough to express various themes and contents. Here I would also like to mention the standard English Bible published by 16 1 1. This English version has a profound influence on English style. Like Shakespeare's works, it mainly uses English mother tongue and simple English sentence patterns to translate the original Bible in Hebrew (Introduction to Japanese Covenant) and Greek (New Testament). This English version of the Bible is famous for its concise and beautiful style. In its vocabulary, English native words account for 94%. This example once again shows that the English mother tongue itself has great potential and creativity. Genius and experienced writers have the ability to skillfully combine mother tongue and foreign language into a dynamic organism. After the practice of Renaissance, early modern English basically reached this stage of English development. After the creative practice in the Renaissance, early modern English has become a beautiful literary language, which can be compared with the languages (French and Italian) of advanced Latin countries in ancient Greece and modern Europe. /kloc-in the 0/7th century, the bourgeois-democratic revolution broke out in Britain, liberated the productive forces, made great progress in materialism and natural science, and established the Royal Society equivalent to the Academy of Sciences. Early modern English gradually replaced Latin as the language of philosophy and natural science. Philosophers Hobbes and Locke demand that language should be accurate, clear, logical and persuasive. /kloc-the language of Draekin's prose works in the 0/7th century can be said to have reached this standard. The development direction of 18th century English is to continue to carry forward the requirements of 17th century English: purity and eloquence. 18th century is a "rational era", so language must be pure (accurate and clear) and eloquent (logical and persuasive). In order to realize this language ideal, English pronunciation, spelling, grammar and meaning should be standardized and conform to unified standards. There is an urgent need for dictionaries and grammar books. Samuel johnson's English dictionary was published in 1755. This dictionary has three advantages that previously published English dictionaries do not have: (1) it gives an accurate and clear definition of every word received; (2) it fixes the spelling of every word received; (3) Cite a large number of examples from English literary works in different periods to illustrate the meaning and usage of words. The English Dictionary written by Dr. John Sun laid a solid foundation for the Oxford English Dictionary (Jr. rJ EM Xi AA DJf6J Rib "ry, 13 volumes, completed by 1933). /kloc-most English grammars compiled by grammarians in the 0/8th century were written according to Latin grammatical rules. This grammar book is of little reference value. Only a few grammarians in the18th century paid attention to the usage of words. 8。 ), rather than mechanically copying Latin rules. Such a grammar book is of certain reference value, because the correctness of English language forms depends not on whether it conforms to Latin grammar, but on whether it conforms to established English idioms. /kloc-The English grammar books that paid attention to the usage of words in the 0/8th century included Introduction to English Grammar edited by Joseph Priest (Philosophy of Rhetoric by George Campbell). Due to international trade exchanges and colonial activities in other countries,18th century Britain came into contact with national cultures all over the world. As a result, English has absorbed several new words, making English vocabulary more global. /kloc-The 9th and 20th centuries witnessed the development of Ying Ji, the rise of romantic literature and the enrichment of English vocabulary. Some ancient words were revived and new words were born. The industrial revolution led to the deepening of social contradictions and the development of science and technology. Literary works that criticize realism and naturalism further enrich English vocabulary. The development of science and technology makes English vocabulary advance by leaps and bounds. English developed rapidly in19th century and 20th century. The growth and change of English 1i vocabulary. According to the English dictionary, about 80% of the words are borrowed from other languages, most of which are borrowed from Latin, and more than half of them are borrowed from French. In addition, a large number of words come directly or indirectly from Greek. Quite a few words come from Scandinavian. There are also some words from Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch. Some words come from other languages all over the world. Old English has about 50,000 to 60,000 words, while modern English dictionaries are accepted.
There are as many as 650,000 to 750,000 entries. However, the most commonly used words in English are still the mother tongue of English, and there are nine of them: and, have, of, the, to, will and you. A large number of loanwords enrich English vocabulary and make English extremely flexible. English word-formation means are also diverse. The most common word formation is compound words, which form complex sentences. Such as motor'way' (