Metaphysics in European languages comes from Greek, such as metaphysics in English. This word was originally named by Androni Kush, a philosophy teacher in Rhode Island in ancient Greece, for a book of Aristotle, meaning "after physics".
Metaphysics is also called "the first philosophy". For example, Descartes' Meditation on the First Philosophy is also called Meditation on Metaphysics. Aristotle divided human knowledge into three parts, using trees as metaphor: the first part, the most basic part, that is, the root, is metaphysics and the foundation of all knowledge; The second part is physics, like tree trunks; The third part is other natural sciences, using branches as metaphors.
The Chinese translation of "Metaphysics" is taken from the sentence "Metaphysics refers to Tao and Metaphysics refers to apparatus" in the Book of Changes.
Metaphysical problems are usually full of controversy without clear conclusions. This is partly because the data accumulated by empirical facts, as the largest amount of human knowledge, usually cannot solve metaphysical disputes; The other part is that the words used by metaphysicists are often confused, so their argument is a bad account with their own opinions but no intersection.
Logical positivists in the twentieth century opposed some metaphysical problems. They think that some metaphysical questions are meaningless in themselves.
Generally speaking, metaphysics has two meanings. One is to look at things from an isolated, static, one-sided and superficial point of view. The second refers to the philosophy of judging things by intuition (transcendental experience). Sometimes it refers to the study of philosophical ontology.
Since modern times, with the strong spread of scientific rationality in the field of humanities, traditional metaphysics has been dealt an unprecedented blow. However, from the historical process of the development of metaphysics, there are actually three forms of metaphysics: universe ontology, category ontology and meaning ontology. What scientific reason rejects is actually the universe ontology based on speculative fiction. In the post-metaphysical era, as far as meaning ontology is concerned, metaphysics has no end and will not end.
It is metaphysics to talk only about form, not substance.
Find out the original text of the Book of Changes: "The metaphysical person refers to the Tao, and the metaphysical person refers to the device", which is great. I have a vague feeling that metaphysics is more virtual and more real. Metaphysics is different from metaphysics: metaphysics refers to the category that thinking and macro belong to emptiness; Metaphysics refers to understanding things to the extreme and being rigid. Laozi has a saying that "the metaphysical refers to the Tao, and the metaphysical refers to the device", which means that metaphysical things refer to the Tao, which refers to both philosophical methods and thinking activities. Physically, it refers to concrete and tangible things or cultural relics.
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Baum Tong Jia is not only the founder of aesthetics, but also puts forward a series of noteworthy aesthetic problems in the history of aesthetics. Baum Tong Jia's idea of establishing aesthetics discipline is not out of the passion of blind innovation, but the result of his profound reflection on Leibniz and Wolff's rationalism philosophy and all human knowledge systems, which has the epistemological significance of rationalism aesthetics. Baum Tong Jia's aesthetic thought also has some enlightenment to the construction of contemporary practical aesthetics.
Alexander Gottliel Baumgarten (1714-1762) was a philosopher and aesthetician during the German Enlightenment. He first adopted the term "Aesthetics A", put forward and established aesthetics as a special philosophical discipline, and was known as "the father of aesthetics". The main aesthetic works are the doctoral thesis Philosophical Thinking on Poetry (1735) and the unfinished masterpiece Aesthetics (1750- 1758). In addition, he also wrote Metaphysics (1739) and Friends of Truth. His thoughts had a great influence on German classical idealist aestheticians such as Kant, Schelling and Hegel.
Firstly, aesthetics is defined as "the science of perceptual knowledge"
1In the 1930s and 1940s, Baum Tong Jia sided with Zurich School in the great debate between Zurich School and Leipzig School in German literature. At the same time, as a disciple of Leibniz and Wolff, Baum Tong Jia has always been dissatisfied with rationalist philosophy's belittling and contempt for perceptual knowledge. Tracing back to the source, Leibniz's rationalism inherited Descartes' rationalism, but only developed Descartes' idealism. Locke developed the materialistic aspect of Descartes philosophy. Locke denied all innate ideas, and Leibniz wrote a new paper on understanding, criticizing Locke from the perspective of rationalism. In his view, aesthetic taste or appreciation is composed of so-called "confused cognition" or "tiny feeling". Because of its confusion, we can't fully explain the truth about it. In essence, this is actually an agnosticism. It is worth noting that Leibniz confined aesthetics to perceptual activities and opposed them to rational activities. Judging from his words about music-"Music, as far as its foundation is concerned, is mathematical; As far as its appearance is concerned, it is intuitive. [1] "He has regarded aesthetic activity as an intuitive activity. Wolff is a loyal believer of Leibniz, and his main achievement lies in systematizing and popularizing Leibniz's rationalism philosophy. As far as aesthetic thought is concerned, his definition of beauty is that the perfection of objective things and their subjective pleasure effect are two basic conditions of beauty. In Wolff's philosophical system, rational knowledge is regarded as advanced and perceptual knowledge as low. Philosophy is often attributed to the logic of studying advanced rational knowledge, and perceptual knowledge is excluded from philosophical research. Through Baum Tong Jia, he was not satisfied with the belittling and contempt of perceptual knowledge by rationalist philosophy. He believes that the previous human knowledge system has a major defect: that is, it lacks serious philosophical meditation on perceptual knowledge, mainly aesthetic consciousness and artistic problems. Rational knowledge is studied by logic, will is studied by ethics, and perceptual knowledge has not been studied by a special discipline. Therefore, he proposed that there should be a new discipline to study perceptual knowledge. Perceptual knowledge can be the object of scientific research. Like rational knowledge, it can also lead to truth and provide knowledge. Baum Tong Jia put forward the suggestion of establishing aesthetics for the first time in his doctoral thesis "Philosophical Thinking on Poetry" published in 1735. At 1750, he specially found "Esteeca" from Greek to name his monograph on perceptual knowledge. At this point, aesthetics as a modern western humanities was born. Of course, the significance of Baum Tong Jia lies not only in naming and making suggestions, but also in his lifelong commitment to the establishment of aesthetics [2]. 1742 university opened a new course of aesthetics, and the first and second volumes of aesthetics were officially published on 1750 and 1758. In aesthetics, he realized the suggestions in the paper, refuted ten opinions against the establishment of aesthetics, initially defined the object, content and task of this science, and determined its position in philosophy science, making aesthetics an independent discipline. 1750 is generally regarded as the age when aesthetics became a formal discipline, and Baum Tong Jia was awarded the title of "Father of Aesthetics".
In the general works of aesthetic history, Baum Tong Jia is often regarded as the founder of aesthetics. It seems that he has not raised any noticeable aesthetic issues. It should be said that this view itself is unrealistic, which reduces Baum Tong Jia's historical achievements in the history of aesthetics. Baum Tong Jia fundamentally changed the situation of aesthetics in name only. He proposed that the establishment of aesthetics was not out of the passion of blind innovation, but the result of his deep reflection on Leibniz and Wolff's rationalism philosophy and all human knowledge systems. At the same time, it is also a historic achievement of the development of western philosophy before this.
Second, the main aesthetic thoughts and aesthetics in the unfinished aesthetic masterpieces
Baum Tong Jia's Aesthetics is written in Latin, which is divided into two parts: theoretical aesthetics and practical aesthetics. The Chinese version only selects important chapters of his theoretical aesthetics, but basically summarizes his main aesthetic propositions [3].
First of all, Baum Tong Jia defined the object of aesthetics in the first chapter of Aesthetics: the object of aesthetics is the perfection of perceptual knowledge, which is beauty; In contrast, perceptual knowledge is imperfect, which is ugliness. Correctness refers to how the church thinks in a correct way, which is a science of studying advanced cognitive styles, that is, the task of logic as advanced epistemology; Beauty is to teach people how to think in a beautiful way, which is a science to study the low-level cognitive style, that is, the task of aesthetics as a low-level epistemology. Aesthetics is the art of thinking in a beautiful way and the theory of the art of beauty. This definition was put forward in view of the situation that rationality was supreme and sensibility was excluded at that time. Aesthetics, as perceptual knowledge, aims at perfecting perceptual knowledge. Baum Tong Jia inherited the concept of perfection from Wolff, but in Wolff's view, perfection only involves rational knowledge and has nothing to do with perceptual knowledge. In Baum Tong Jia's works, both rational knowledge and perceptual knowledge have been perfected. To achieve the perfection of perceptual knowledge, there are three conditions: the harmony of ideological content, the consistency of order arrangement and the perfection of expression [4]. Therefore, unlike Leibniz and Wolff, he only looked for perfection in the object, but looked for the root of beauty in people's subjective understanding. This tendency to emphasize the role of cognitive subject has become a new important factor in Baum Tong Jia's aesthetics, which marks a new direction of modern western aesthetics.
Secondly, Baum Tong Jia thinks that "the beauty of cognition" is "the achievement of people who think in a beautiful way", so the innate aesthetic ability of the subject (that is, the innate ability to think in a beautiful way) is particularly important. It mainly includes: keen perception, rich imagination, insight into everything, good memory, creative talent, appreciation, foresight, expression and natural aesthetic temperament. These innate aesthetic abilities are the main factors to judge the beauty and ugliness of the object. It is worth noting that these aesthetic forces are not entirely within the scope of perceptual knowledge, and some have already involved rational content. It can be seen that Baum Tong Jia did not blindly improve sensibility and belittle rationality, but tried to unify sensibility and rationality. At the same time, Baum Tong Jia believes that if you don't train regularly, your natural aesthetic ability will fail and disappear. Therefore, under the guidance of "the theory of formal art" and taking great writers as models, he put forward the correct theory of aesthetic training.
Thirdly, after discussing "aesthetic richness" and "aesthetic greatness", Baum Tong Jia put forward the third characteristic of aesthetic thinking: aesthetic authenticity. At that time, perceptual knowledge existed as a kind of vague and chaotic knowledge, and many people rejected it as the root of mistakes. Baumga's general principle holds that aesthetic experience also contains universal truth, that is, the truth of "aesthetic truth" is not achieved through rational logical thinking, but formed through concrete image feeling. "Aestheticism does not directly pursue the truth that needs to be grasped by reason [6]." But in the experience of concrete perceptual images, we can understand this universality. Starting from subjective perception, Baum Tong Jia linked truth (beauty) or falsehood (ugliness) with the perfection of perceptual knowledge, and thought that "not all falsehood is also falsehood in aesthetic field". Fake (ugly) things are true (beautiful) if they meet the "true perfection of perceptual knowledge", while real (beautiful) things are false (ugly) if they don't meet this standard. The truth here seems to have nothing to do with the nature of the thing itself, but only with the way of perceptual cognition. Even some falsehood, such as fiction in literary works, may be more real and beautiful in the aesthetic field than the facts in real life. Aesthetics is really not superficial, and people can't see its connotation at a glance. It is not a general principle and rule expressed in clear language and mastered by reason, but something that cannot be clearly defined from "rational analogy", that is, perceptual perception.
Thirdly, Baum Tong Jia thinks that both science and art pursue truth, but they pursue truth in different ways. Scientific truth-seeking needs perfect rationality. By sublating the concrete, vivid and superficial aspects of individual things, a general concept with high generalization power is abstracted. The aesthetic pursuit of truth is just the opposite of the former. It uses "low-level perceptual knowledge" to grasp the perfection of things as much as possible "In this process, the perfection of materials will be damaged as little as possible, and in the process of pondering in order to achieve interesting performance, the perfection of truly owned materials will be worn as little as possible [7]". Aesthetic truth-seeking is different from the logical efforts of scientists and philosophers, from the strict textual research of historians, and is also related to human rational foresight.
Vivid charm means that the works and the images portrayed in the works have vivid charm and appear full of vitality. In the Sheikh era, charm, as the standard of evaluation and creation, mainly depends on the degree of description of the charm of the object in the works, and then gradually contains more factors of subject performance. Charm refers to the overall internal characteristics of the image form as the integration of subject and object. Being able to show the vivid charm of the combination of things and me is one of the highest goals of painting and even the whole plastic arts.
China's art is influenced by Taoism and Confucianism's idea of "harmony between man and nature". This kind of thinking is manifested in painting, which is his work.
It is not only the plagiarism of the foreign minister, but the realization of the author's thoughts. "Vivid" is a proposition put forward by Gu Kaizhi in painting. He stressed that it was necessary.
Breaking through the limitations of superficial appearance to achieve vivid image is the publicity of "getting carried away" Poetry, painting, music and calligraphy are China.
The soul of art, and the most dazzling and consistent of these souls is the vivid aesthetic proposition.
Da's aesthetic thought and its connotation are extremely profound. It covers not only the aesthetic principles of figure painting, but also the traditional literature and art in China.
One point of China's classical literature aesthetics can be the soul feature.