Compare the similarities and differences of tones between medieval and modern Chinese.

Modern Chinese refers to the homonym of modern Han nationality, which is Putonghua with Beijing pronunciation as the standard, northern dialect as the basic dialect and typical modern vernacular writing as the grammatical norm. In modern Chinese, this word usually has a broad sense and a narrow sense. The broad interpretation refers to the languages used by the Han nationality since modern times, including national languages-Putonghua and dialects; Modern Chinese in a narrow sense only refers to Putonghua. Modern Chinese course is modern Chinese in a narrow sense. Compared with modern Chinese, ancient Chinese is the popular language of ancient Han nationality. Ancient Chinese is the predecessor of modern Chinese, and modern Chinese is the inheritance and development of ancient Chinese. Ancient Chinese is the language used by the ancient Han people, the predecessor of modern Chinese and the continuation and development of ancient Chinese. There are two writing forms of ancient Chinese: classical Chinese and ancient vernacular Chinese. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of pre-Qin spoken language, which is increasingly divorced from spoken language in its development, absorbs nutrition from spoken languages of past dynasties and keeps pace with the times. The learning object of ancient Chinese is classical Chinese. Second, the phonetic features of modern Chinese: 1. Every 1 syllable has a tone. Sound, rhyme and tone are the three elements of Chinese syllables, of which tone is an indispensable part. 2. There are no consonants. Consonants are mainly voiced consonants, and voiced consonants are only M, L, R and N; 3. Vowels are dominant. Any syllable must have a vowel, and any vowel must have one or more vowels. Even if there are two vowels (good H m 4 o) or three vowels (teaching discipline) in Chinese, one vowel is a syllable. Modern Chinese is dominated by unvoiced consonants, and the vocal cords of unvoiced consonants do not vibrate, so there is less noise and more music in syllables. The phonology of ancient Chinese: (1) Two-tone overlapping (1) Two-tone: The initials of two words are the same, such as jagged and bitter; (2) Overlapping: the vowels of the two words are the same, such as the "four tones" of the Middle Ages: flat and up. Ancient phonetic notation methods: (1) Direct phonetic notation: phonetic notation with homophones; (2) Oblique phonetic notation: the phonetic notation of spelling a Chinese character with two Chinese characters. The method is as follows: the initial consonant of the upper word is the same as that of the incised word, and the vowel and tone of the lower word are the same as that of the incised word. For example, "The Opposition of" means that the initial letter H and Bao's vowel ao tone (ˋ) are put together, which is Hao or his hobby's "good". Modern Chinese Putonghua also has four tones, but it is not flat, rising, going and progressing, but flat, rising, rising and falling. These four tones of Putonghua evolved from the ancient four tones. By comparing the four tones of Ping, Shang, Qu and Ru in Guang Yun, a rhyme book in the middle ages, with the four tones of Yin, Yang, Shang and Ru in modern Mandarin Chinese, we can sum up the evolution law of ancient and modern tones, which are mainly divided into three tones: Yin and Yang, voiced change and Ru tone. "Equal division of yin and yang" refers to the ancient flat-voiced characters, which are divided into two categories in modern Mandarin Chinese: Yin Ping and Yang Ping. The rules are as follows: in ancient times, the initials of Quanqing and Suqing were all flat tones, and later they all evolved into Yin Ping; In ancient times, the full-voiced and sub-voiced initials Pingsheng characters later evolved into Yangping characters. The development and evolution of tones from ancient times to the present is related to the disappearance of voiced consonants and entering vowels. This is because Chinese pronunciation is a complete system composed of initials, finals and tones. Once some components in the phonology change, other components will also change accordingly, thus adjusting the phonological pattern and maintaining the harmony within the phonology. Therefore, the change of ancient initials and finals led to the evolution of ancient four tones to modern Chinese four tones. Thirdly, there are six structural rules of Chinese characters, which are called "Six Books": pictographs, signifiers, comprehensives, pictographs, phonetic symbols, phonetic symbols and loanwords. In fact, there are only the first four ways to create Chinese characters, and the latter is only the use of Chinese characters. Font: The main characters used in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties are Oracle Bone Inscriptions and Jinwen. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, various governors developed their own style of writing. It was not until the Qin Dynasty that the writing style of characters was unified, with Xiao Zhuan as the common font, and official scripts were created one after another to simplify the writing of Xiao Zhuan: in fact, due to the relationship between teachers and students in the development of Chinese characters, the actual writing in different regions was different. Therefore, some ancient books and calligraphy and painting use Chinese characters with different writing methods. Font situation of ancient Chinese characters (1) ancient and modern Chinese characters, variant Chinese characters, simplified Chinese characters 1, ancient and modern Chinese characters: as far as the era of Chinese characters is concerned, today's Chinese characters were not produced when ancient Chinese characters were written, which is different from the original characters borrowing other words, such as anti-blooming-marriage road-derivation 2, variant Chinese characters: the different types of variant Chinese characters: (650

1, loanwords refer to using homophones instead of words that have not been created. For example, "Mo" originally refers to dusk, like sunset grass, and is borrowed as the "Mo" in indefinite pronouns. In addition, like "lai", the original meaning is small, and it is used as "lai" between us. The original meaning of the word "Qi" refers to a dustpan. Borrowing the writing method of the function word "Qi", the definition of the interchangeable word (1) is a substitute word with similar sounds. To be precise, it is a phenomenon that words are used instead of words with similar pronunciation. (2) Features: The pronunciation of interchangeable words is the same as that of interchangeable words (original words), but the meaning is irrelevant; Strictly speaking, there are two kinds of homophones: homophones and homophones. Homophones refer to the same pronunciation of borrowed words and borrowed words; Phonetic similarity refers to the same initial (disyllabic) or vowel (reduplicative) between interchangeable words and function words. Four. Lexical features Modern Chinese: 1. With monosyllabic roots and root words as the main parts, root compound method is widely used to form new words, and syllables in modern Chinese are generally meaningful. These syllables that record meaning constitute the smallest combination of sound and meaning in modern Chinese-morphemes and words. Such as rivers, peaks, etc. 2. Chinese words are short, with many monosyllabic morphemes, and disyllabic words are dominant. In Chinese, compound words with roots are often used to create new words. Disyllabic words have the aesthetic feeling of symmetrical and harmonious syllables and even rhythms. Such as: eyes-eyes, foreign minister-foreign minister; 3. In disyllabic words, four-character case is dominant. This is related to the dominance of disyllabic words and even-numbered rhythm habits in Chinese. Some numerical abbreviations are mostly even numbers. Such as "four modernizations", "five virtues", "three disciplines" and "four similarities" Word formation characteristics of ancient Chinese vocabulary: disyllabic words are dominant, monosyllabic words, disyllabic words (disyllabic words, conjunctions and compound words) and disyllabic compound words (1): two identical Chinese characters overlap. Such as Guan Yu; Run away and burn its flowers. (2) Conjunction: a simple word with two syllables. When two words are connected together, it means that one meaning cannot be disassembled, such as, as if, wandering, pipa. (3) Compound word: two morphemes are combined according to a certain word-formation way, such as Jiangshan and Hezhe. (4) Compound word with partial meaning: after two words are combined, the meaning of one word is focused on the other. . . (2) The disappearance of historical things, the change of social concepts or the replacement of old words by other words lead to the disappearance of old words, which has completely different meanings in ancient and modern times. (3) The ancient and modern meanings are both related and developed, such as persuasion (ancient: encouragement) (present: persuasion). (1). The narrowing of meaning. (2) the expansion of the meaning: "Jiang" means the Yangtze River, and now it means the river. (3) Meaning transfer: "Walking" means running, and now it means walking. The change of emotional color and weight of words (1) The meaning of some words has changed in the development. For example, "hate" means regret and dissatisfaction. The ancient meaning is light, but the present meaning is heavy. (2) The emotional color of some words has changed in the process of development. For example, "slave" means right-hand man, and the emotional color is positive, but now it is derogatory. Third, the original meaning, extended meaning and borrowed meaning of a word (1): a word has a text form to be tested and a meaning that can be proved by literature and historical materials. (2) extended meaning: meaning from original meaning (3) borrowed meaning: sometimes, some meanings of a word have nothing to do with original meaning, but are borrowed for other purposes because of homophonic. We call this meaning borrowing meaning. Such as riverside, bridge, etc. "Rebellion" is homophonic with "Pan", so it means "betrayal". For example, the word "Pan" of "relative" is used in an illusory sense. V. Grammar Modern Chinese (1) Modern Chinese mainly uses function words and word order to express grammatical meaning, and rarely uses forms such as "grasping industry" and "grasping industry"; "I want to learn" and "I want to learn". My brother and I have different grammatical relations and meanings because of the difference between function words and "he". (2) The structural principles of word phrase sentences are basically the same. For example: the word earthquake; The ground shook. The ground shook. All indicate that there is a declarative relationship between your structure. 3) The relationship between parts of speech and syntactic components is complicated. In Chinese, words of the same kind can act as multiple components, and vice versa.

There are many kinds of words, such as verbs and nouns, verbs and prepositions, verbs and adjectives, etc. 4) Quantifiers are rich in modal particles, such as: a person, a cow. Modal particles often appear at the end of sentences, indicating the subtle differences of various moods, such as: is it her? It's him! It's him! (5) There is no morphological change in word form. No matter whether a word is the subject or the object, its pronunciation and word form have not changed. 6) Compound words are dominant, and the morphology of modern Chinese is based on the composition of compound words. This method is very effective and can meet the needs of vocabulary in verbal communication. But also facilitate understanding and mastering the meaning of words. For example, the sky can form a large number of words, such as today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, tomorrow, Sunday, spring, autumn, blue sky, world, weather and so on. The grammar of ancient Chinese is mainly reflected in the use of vocabulary and sentence structure. Lexical usage mainly refers to the flexible use of parts of speech, 1, causative usage and intentional usage, and flexible use of nouns, verbs and adjectives. Sentence structure: Elliptic sentences, such as subject, are widely used in ancient Chinese, so a large number of sentences can not see the existence of subject, and can only be inferred according to the meaning of the context. "Li Xia said:' He who shoots the monarch is also a gentleman. "There are also some negative problems. There are many special sentence patterns in ancient Chinese, such as the sentence of prepositional object: Pei Gongan is here? Inverted sentence: Great, Yao is the king! True or false: The king is a man. Elliptic sentences; Passive sentence: "first, we will defeat others, and then we will be defeated by others." "The function words commonly used in ancient Chinese, whether modern Chinese or ancient Chinese, are all fixed in the sentence order. Usually the subject comes first, the predicate comes last, the verb predicate comes before the object, the attribute and adverbial come before the head word it modifies, and so on. This order has not changed much since ancient times. However, the expression of ancient Chinese is also different from modern Chinese, with its own characteristics and a few sentence patterns that modern Chinese does not have. For example, in ancient Chinese, the judgment word "yes" was generally not used; There are also passive sentence patterns in ancient Chinese, such as predicate preposition, object postposition and attribute postposition. This also has different characteristics. To learn ancient Chinese, we must understand the usage of these special sequences.