The author of this article is Chen Liang, a 2015 undergraduate student at Beijing Normal University Law School (WeChat public platform: PatrickJanus). This article is published with the authorization of the author. The copyright of this article is retained by the author, and any infringement will be investigated.
Introduction
In 1768, Mr. Kong Feili said: "The eve of China's tragic modern times" [1]. Perhaps what Mr. Kong Feili said is true, but What I see more from what happened this year is the collapse of order and orthodoxy, resulting in a strange binary division between the other and the empire, the other of the empire and the empire of the other.
Let us first restore the story that happened in the long history of 1768, when the great panic of witchcraft spread throughout the Qing Empire, from the emperor to the common people. Let us return to the beginning. It all started with the Xiaoshan incident. Four monks were regarded as demon monks who performed sorcery due to many accidental incidents [2]. Subsequently, cases such as the Suzhou Beggar Case[3] and the Strange Incident in Xukou Town[4] appeared one after another. In the end, the incident further escalated and reached the ears of Qianlong. After trial, it was found that the spearhead of these incidents pointed to Jiangnan, although these so-called "facts" may have been forced into submission. The land south of the Yangtze River has been one of the areas with the strongest resistance to the Qing rulers since the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Nowadays, the panic about the sorcery of braid-cutting has pointed to the land of Jiangnan. This will undoubtedly make people reasonably imagine that this is a rebellion! Since entering the customs, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty have begun to implement the "hair-shaving order"; despite the Confucian tradition It is believed that the hair and skin of the body are inherited from parents and should not be damaged. This is the beginning of filial piety and should not be damaged easily. However, it is precisely for this reason that the rulers of the Qing Dynasty regarded the behavior of "cutting braids" as a symbol of complete surrender to the Qing Dynasty. It is very similar to the way loyalty was shown during the Great Purge that swept through the Soviet Union more than a hundred years later. Because of the above reasons, the upper class was outraged and began to conduct large-scale searches and other activities. During the search, a game began between the monarch and the bureaucracy, but at the same time, the people at the bottom also carried out a certain degree of struggle against those people who were officially defined as others or even heretics? Just like the Soviet Union Class Struggle in the Great Purge. Finally, at the reminder of the Minister of Military and Aircraft, Qianlong stopped this "Great Purge" campaign, and the empire's war against "heresies" came to an end.
The Other of the Empire should start with a clear meaning and define it first. What is the Other of the Empire? The "Empire" here refers to the Qing Dynasty, and the "Other" here refers to those who were defined as "heretics" in 1768, that is, beggars, wandering monks and others. In other words, the other in the empire refers to the group of people who were defined by the political system of the Qing Dynasty and the entire society as the originators of sorcery during the great sorcery panic of 1768.
Why do we say they are? Others? They are people abandoned by this great empire. They are defined as social aliens by the Qing Empire. They are excluded from normal society by the people of the Qing Empire. outside. They were regarded as manifestations of political achievements by the bureaucrats of the Qing Empire, and were then arrested wildly by the bureaucrats [5] because they were defined as others by the Qing Empire. They are regarded as tigers by the lower class people and as destroyers of their peaceful lives; we cannot deny the influence of official propaganda, but before the official propaganda has played a role, the lower class people have already been against the monsters. ?The crowd rallied to attack? The woman sued the government just because two monks touched her child's head. These violated people had severed ties with the political upper echelons of the Qing Empire and were regarded as unstable factors in the empire; these people had also broken with the lower classes of the people, creating a unique class. From a class perspective, stonemasons, beggars, wandering monks and others have been completely isolated from the entire politics and society of the Qing Empire. They have formed a new class, the Other of the empire.
The so-called Other of the Empire is independent of the morality and legal system of the Empire. We can confirm this from the treatment of the Other by the Empire. We can cite the following two examples. First, the imperial Other is excluded from secular morality; when a group of beggars express to the alms-giver that they are not worthy enough, what they receive is not further alms, nor is it a casual rejection. , but threatening? Threaten them that if they don't get out, they will be sued and said that they are soul callers. Obviously, such behavior has gone beyond the moral logic of normal interactions between people in normal society. Normal interactions between people generally do not pose threats. This is a typical sign of society's moral decay towards others; it even When such a situation occurs, the person who has a grudge against him will be forcibly labeled as a soul caller and handed over to the government for disposal. At this time, the other in the empire has become a group abandoned by morality, and has even become a means for people to fight against their enemies. In the second example, the imperial Other is abandoned by fairness and justice when he is condemned. According to the "Regulations of the Qing Dynasty", there are no specific provisions on "soul calling" in the law. Therefore, according to the general practice, one should refer to relevant legal provisions and make analogies, but this should not be taken seriously at this time. The law's punishment of soul-callers went against the custom of trial and chose heavier punishments; in addition, soul-callers were tortured on a large scale during the interrogation process. Although the laws of the Qing Empire allowed the existence of torture, But it was obvious that the level of torture suffered by the soul callers had already exceeded the level regulated by the law at that time.
From this perspective, the soul callers naturally lost the protection of the law and were excluded from the protection of the law.
Since the others of the empire are excluded from the empire’s morality and legal system, then they should be separated from the social system of the empire, just like the story of Fu in "The Case of the Spelunk" Judge Sturt said the same thing: People's ability to survive in society is a prerequisite for the existence of law, just as legal jurisdiction is based on territory. Since the others in the empire are called "others", it means that they can no longer be tolerated within the system of the Qing Empire. At this time, they have in a sense exceeded the jurisdiction of the laws of the Qing Empire. But they were still sanctioned by the laws of the Qing Empire, or in other words, by the so-called "laws" of the subjects of the Qing Empire at that time. In fact, the so-called legal sanctions at this time have already exceeded the meaning of the law itself, but are an attack by one creature on another creature without any sympathy? Even if this so-called difference in species and class is only their own Just think it's correct. This is just like what the Europeans did when they colonized Africa and invaded the Americas. Those European colonists and invaders never regarded black people and Indians as human beings equal to themselves, but like the fanatical racism of later generations. Like other people, they are regarded as objects instead of beings with personality like themselves, and they are regarded as inferior creatures. The occurrence of this situation is terrible. Between two identical creatures, one party can use means beyond equal treatment to harm the other without taking any responsibility. What does the occurrence of this situation mean? It is a A complete rupture of different classes in society? The class represented by the Soul Callers was completely driven out of the acceptable range of the Qing Empire.
A group of people were kicked out of the society of the Qing Empire, so they became the Others of the empire, so they could be bullied at will. The other of the empire is the people who were ruthlessly abandoned by the Qing Empire, nothing more.
The Empire of Others Before further discussing the "Empire of Others", we should have a clear definition of the "Empire of Others" here. The "empire" here naturally refers to the Qing Empire, so what should be the definition of the "other" here? Are they the "others" who are excluded from society like stonemasons, beggars, and wandering monks? No, They couldn't have the Qing Empire. So, who owned the Qing Empire? It was Qianlong and the Manchus. The "other" in "The Empire of Others" refers to the ruler of the empire, who is Qianlong and the Manchu. They existed as "others" compared to the more numerous Han people among the subjects of the Qing Empire.
The rulers of the Qing Dynasty came from the land outside the customs, started from the so-called "Longxing Land", and conquered the Ming Dynasty from north to south? This is why the resistance in the Jiangnan region was the most violent, because that was The last base of the Ming Dynasty. Indeed, Qing rulers conquered Han dynasties by force of arms. However, in the Central Plains and the Jiangnan water towns, Confucian culture still existed more; the orthodox Confucian culture believed that barbarians should not become rulers of the Han people, and the legitimacy of the rule of minority kings was questioned. From the moment the Qing Dynasty rulers began to rule, they found it difficult to challenge the authority of Confucian culture, especially in the Jiangnan region where resistance was strongest. The rulers of the Qing Dynasty lacked legitimacy, which is why "anti-Qing and restoration of Ming" activities were so frequent during the rule of the Qing Dynasty, such as the Nanming regime, three times of rebellion against the Qing and restoration of the Ming Dynasty, the Korean Li Dynasty, the Tiandihui, the White Lotus Sect, etc.
Now, the ruling power of the empire is in the hands of the Manchu rulers, who are now in the prosperous age of Kangxi and Qianlong. Although it was under the prosperous age of Kangxi and Qianlong, there was a crisis hidden under the prosperous age, and the rulers could not relax even for a minute. When the painter painted his portrait, the middle-aged Hongli didn’t smile sincerely. In my opinion, it even seemed a bit forced. ? [6] Mr. Kong Feili seems to have discovered some clues, and there is a huge crisis hidden under the prosperous age. As mentioned in the background introduction above, the prelude cases that broke out in the 1768 witchcraft panic all pointed to Jiangnan, the base of resistance. Furthermore, the method used by the soul-caller in the soul-calling case (the method rumored to be used) is to cut off other people's braids. Since Dorgon implemented the "hair-shaving order", a long braid has been used as a symbol of the rulers' allegiance to the rulers of the Qing Dynasty. The soul-caller cut off other people's braids to express dissatisfaction with the Qing government, and even to launch an uprising or revolution.
The fierce collision between the two cultures created the possibility of such a crisis. The rulers of the Qing Empire also made considerable efforts to bridge this rift. For example, the Manchu and Qing courts tried to promote Qing-style Confucian ideology, hoping to deny racial characteristics and emphasize virtue. The basis of legitimate rule is virtue rather than racial identity. ?From this perspective, Qianlong made six tours to the south, reciting poems and composing poems on a daily basis (although some works were ghostwritten), just like a famous Han scholar. His purpose was to consolidate his power and grasp the legitimacy of his rule. But in essence, the Manchu rulers are still others? Because the Manchu rulers cannot completely destroy their national identity. The Qing Dynasty established the country by force. If the foundation of the country is ignored, the legitimacy of the Qing Dynasty will be even more serious. Difficult to maintain.
Under the system of the Qing Dynasty, for the people at the bottom, the Qing Empire they lived in was actually an empire of others and had little to do with themselves. In other words, overall, the country’s cohesion is extremely low and its national identity is not high [7]. In this other country, it was accidental to reach the prosperous age of Kangxi and Qianlong. If it continues to develop, prosperity and decline will be inevitable.
What is the reason for the formation of the empire of others? Is it purely the racial difference between the upper class and the lower class of society? I’m afraid not necessarily. The reason for the existence of the phenomenon of the empire of others should be the separation of the two value systems. Taking Tsarist Russia in the late World War I as an example, the value system of the upper class has been irreversibly separated from the value system of the lower class. The upper class still pursues the Orthodox Church and the justice of the king, but unknowingly, the lower class has already become a follower of Marxism. There was an irreconcilable separation between the value systems of Marxism and the Tsarist Russian Empire. Coupled with the stimulation of external contradictions (World War I), the revolution broke out. In a revolution that shocked the world, the Tsarist Russian Empire The imperial family was overthrown, followed by the overthrow of the bourgeois Kerensky conquests, and finally an emerging state was established that conformed to the value system of the lower classes. In this example, the lower class successfully overthrew the upper class through revolution and established a value system consistent with its own identity. But not all conflicts between the value systems of the upper class and the lower class will lead to the overthrow of the upper class, such as Japan during the Taika Reform and Meiji Restoration. Although there is a conflict between the value system of the upper class and the value system of the lower class, such as the Nakadai Brothers The power game between the prince and the Soga family, and the samurai riots that struggled after the "Abolition of the Sword Order", but the final result is that the value system of the upper class eventually became the mainstream values ????of the country. According to the above discussion, when there is an irreconcilable contradiction between the upper class value system and the lower class value system, whether through struggle or reform, the best and final result will be the emergence of a mainstream value system [8]. But the process of emergence of mainstream values ??is bound to be bumpy. The best way is to bridge and guide the separation before it becomes irreversible. While trying to reconcile as much as possible, try to keep the conflict between the values ??of the upper class and the lower class less severe and maintain stability. This is similar to the way the mass line is implemented.
Empire and the Other The Empire of the Other or the Empire of the Other all exist in the same era, which is shown in the book "The Soul Calling: The Great Chinese Magic Panic of 1768" as the Qianlong era. This is the best of times and the worst of times. This is the best of times, because this is the pinnacle of ancient China's development; this is the worst of times, because it is the eve of China's tragic modern times. We should reflect on why a glorious empire fell.
Analyzing from the perspective of empire and others, we can draw the conclusion: the reason why the Qing Empire went from glory to decline was because of the increasing number of "imperial others" and the increasing number of "empires of others". Sturdy.
What is the final outcome of people who are excluded from society? Is it destruction? Maybe, but in what way will they choose to destroy? Xianglin’s method of destruction does exist, but if it is subjected to a Guided by this ideological trend, the meaning of the meaningless people's existence is closely adhered to this ideological trend? This is probably the case with the White Lotus Rebellion and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement. These ideological trends or teachings have injected new vitality into those abandoned social classes. meaning of existence. Marx has a famous saying: "Proletarians of the world, unite! What you lose are just chains, and you will win the whole world!" When others in the empire begin to discover, they resist and fight, and the benefits they get from these activities are greater than the costs. The cost is high, and they will naturally join this wave without reservation; in addition, the others in the empire are isolated from society, and are more likely to enter fanaticism after feeling the inspiration of society, such as religious teachings, etc. In this state, people will devote themselves crazily to the causes they recognize.
?The empire of others? If it becomes stronger, what will be the outcome? It will be difficult for people to see hope. When the entire empire becomes the empire of others, and becomes an empire with which one can never have direct contact, and the rule of the empire no longer has anything to do with oneself, it is difficult for people to see hope for the future? Because they cannot decide their own future. When there is an irreconcilable rift between the values ??of the upper class and the values ??of the lower class, it will be difficult for the upper class's ideas to be turned into practice, or the system cost will be too high and the implementation of the policy will cause huge losses. What's more, the conflict between the values ??of the upper class and the values ??of the lower class intensified, eventually leading to a complete break between the upper class and the lower class, dragging the entire empire into the abyss of war. The empire of the Other should not be fortified but, on the contrary, weakened as much as possible. In a stable country, there may be a certain degree of conflict between the upper class and the lower class, but the value systems should not be too different. This is also reflected in the construction of institutions. If a system that is beyond the understanding of this era is forcibly incorporated into the current national system, it will most likely lead to the deterioration of the system.
Just like the Young Crops Law in Wang Anshi's reform, the idea proposed by Wang Anshi was too ahead of the times, so the system he proposed was difficult to truly implement. If the value systems of the upper class and the lower class are far apart, will it lead to political despair? The desires of the lower class can no longer be expressed, and their current perceived interests will not be safeguarded. When the value gap between the upper class and the lower class is too great and there is a lack of a good communication method, the empire of the other will be established. This establishment is manifested in the widening gap between the rich and the poor and the strengthening of class barriers. At this time, from the perspective of a third party, the upper class and the lower class seem to be in two different worlds, and it is difficult to reconcile them in practice. Create mutual connections. Once the empire of others is established, will it lead to the collapse of the entire social class? The social class is completely fixed, and there is no healthy and reasonable way of circulation.
Conclusion The great panic of sorcery in China in 1768 was only a small event in history, but it reflected the inevitable decline of an empire from its prosperity. The Qing Empire was crumbling. There were more and more others in the empire, and the empire of others became stronger and stronger. The interaction between the other of the empire and the empire of the other will ultimately bring about the inevitable fall of the Qing Empire into the abyss.
, 2014 edition, page 1.
Mei Kong Feili: "Calling Souls: The Great Panic of Chinese Sorcery in 1768", translated by Chen Jian and Liu Chang, Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, Life? Reading? New Knowledge Sanlian Bookstore, 2014 edition, pp. 9-22 .
Mei Kong Feili: "Calling Souls: The Great Panic of Chinese Sorcery in 1768", translated by Chen Jian and Liu Chang, Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, Life? Reading? New Knowledge Sanlian Bookstore, 2014 edition, pp. 22-27 .
Mei Kong Feili: "Calling Souls: The Great Panic of Chinese Sorcery in 1768", translated by Chen Jian and Liu Chang, Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, Life? Reading? New Knowledge Sanlian Bookstore, 2014 edition, pp. 27-28 .
Although there are a small number of bureaucrats who refuse to arrest against their conscience, this is the case from an overall perspective.
Mei Kong Feili: "Calling Souls: The Great Panic of Chinese Sorcery in 1768", translated by Chen Jian and Liu Chang, Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, Life? Reading? New Knowledge Sanlian Bookstore, 2014 edition, page 61.
When the Qing Dynasty fell, many intellectuals died for the Qing Dynasty. However, this article mainly discusses the patriotic enthusiasm of the people at the bottom, so the above situation is not included in the discussion.
This mainstream value may be the value of the upper class, the value of the lower class, or the third type of value.
Author’s acknowledgment: This article was inspired by Associate Professor Chen Xinyu of Tsinghua University Law School, and the improvement of this article was helped by Associate Professor Xia Yang of Beijing Normal University Law School. Thank you hereby!
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Author of this article: Grandpa Ximing
Public account: Grandparents Reading Club
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