Since 1840 Opium War, China has gradually become a semi-colonial and semi-feudal country. With the deepening of capitalist imperialist aggression and the intensification of feudal oppression, ethnic contradictions and class contradictions in China have intensified day by day, and the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal national democratic revolutionary movement of the people of China has therefore surged.
The Revolution of 1911 is the continuation and development of China's anti-imperialist and anti-feudal struggle since the Opium War, but it is different from any revolution in the history of China. It happened under the historical conditions of the emergence of new social economy, capitalist economy and new social class and national bourgeoisie in China. Therefore, the bourgeoisie became the dominant force in society at that time. The Revolution of 1911 led by the lower class of the national bourgeoisie not only proposed to replace the old mode of production with a new mode of production, but also proposed to replace the feudal autocratic system with a new social system, democratic system and system, so it is of great significance to update the social, economic and political systems.
Officially, China's anti-imperialist and anti-feudal bourgeois democratic revolution began with Sun Yat-sen ... From 65438 to 2009, Sun Yat-sen's revolution was marked by the establishment of the Zhong Xing Society in the 1990s. The establishment of the Zhong Xing Society was the beginning of the formal bourgeois-democratic revolution in China. From the establishment of 1894 to the end of 19 13, the Revolution of 1911 failed. This revolutionary movement has gone through nearly 20 years, which can be roughly divided into two major periods and six stages.
The two main periods are:
19 12 years ago, Zhong Xing Hui and the League launched and led the revolutionary period;
After 19 12, the central government was established and the Kuomintang launched the "second revolution".
These six stages are:
From 1894, 1 1, the Huizhou Uprising led by Sun Yat-sen in Honolulu to 1900,1/failure was the initial brewing stage of the Xinhai Revolution.
From the failure of 190 1 Boxer Rebellion to the establishment of 1905 in August, it was the rising stage of the Revolution of 1911.
The development stage of the Revolution of 1911 was from 19 1 1 August, when the China League was founded, to the eve of Wuchang's first righteousness in1June.
From 19 1 1 Wuchang Shouyi in June to 1 1 the end of June, the revolutionary storm swept across the country, and various provinces and regions declared uprisings or independence in succession, which was the climax stage of the Revolution of 1911.
From 19 111representatives of the provincial governors of Guangfu held a meeting in Hankou to form an interim government, which was the period from the victory of the Revolution of 1911 to the dissolution of the Nanjing interim government in April 2002191,
From the dissolution of Nanjing Provisional Government in April 19 12 to the failure of the "Second Revolution" in September13, the Revolution of 1911 was a stage from victory to failure.
Judging from the whole process of the revolutionary movement, this struggle is extremely complicated and tortuous. Bourgeois revolutionaries had the excitement and joy of victory, but also the sorrow and pain of failure.
1On August 20th, 905, Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing and others United some members of Zhong Xing Society, Huaxing Society, Guangfu Society, Japanese science tutorial school and other patriotic revolutionaries in Tokyo, Japan, and established the first bourgeois revolutionary party in China, the League. Sun Yat-sen was elected Prime Minister of the League, and Huang Xing was appointed General Manager of the Executive Department. The platform of the League is "expelling the Tatars, restoring China, establishing the Republic of China, and sharing land rights equally". Inherited the correct route of armed anti-Qing of Zhong Xing Hometown Association.
The establishment of China League marks the further assembly of revolutionary forces and the further maturity of the whole revolutionary situation, and marks that the bourgeois revolutionaries have stepped onto the historical stage with a new look and attitude, shouldering the important historical mission of leading the revolution, and the bourgeois democratic revolution in China has entered a new historical stage.
As a new type of bourgeois revolutionary party, the United League has established a whole set of party organization system, taking the western bourgeois political parties as a model: the central government has set up its headquarters, branches and branches in various provinces and overseas. The prime minister of this department is elected every four years through democratic public elections; This department consists of administrative department, appraisal department and judicial department, and implements the principle of separation of powers. All these make the NLD have the characteristics of a new political party. Although the League is inevitably in a loose organization, it is undoubtedly a unified national bourgeois revolutionary party.
The League formed the core of leadership with Sun Yat-sen as the leader. Under the Prime Minister, Huang Xing served as the Director of the Administration Department, assisted Sun Yat-sen to preside over the work in the Department, and actually played the role of Deputy Prime Minister. (Jing Wei) is the chief examiner, Song is the chief inspector, Deng is the chief judge, and Hu and Liao are the main staff of each department; Zhang Taiyan and Tao successively presided over People's Daily, with Qiu Jin and Cai Yuanpei as the main members of each province. Among overseas Chinese, representatives like Chen Chunan, Zhang Yongfu and Deng Zeru have emerged to host local chapters and raise funds. Among many leading members, Sun Yat-sen stands taller and sees farther than others. He always stands in front of the times, "conforms to the world trend and meets the needs of the crowd" and never flinches; He first set foot on the revolutionary journey and took the lead in establishing revolutionary groups; He first put forward the program of overthrowing the imperial system and establishing a peaceful country, and led and organized the revolutionary practice of seizing power by armed forces. Therefore, Sun Yat-sen was a well-deserved revolutionary forerunner and leader of the Revolution of 1911, and he became a glorious banner of the old democratic revolution in China.
At the end of 1905, under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, revolutionaries and constitutionalists launched an ideological debate. The main battlefield of the debate is Japan, and the main positions of the debate are the revolutionary People's Daily and the constitutionalist Xinmin Cong Bao. In Singapore, Hong Kong, Honolulu, San Francisco, Canada and other places, there are also endless pen battles. More than 20 revolutionary newspapers such as Zhongxing Daily, China Daily, Minsheng Daily and Datong Daily, and constitutional newspapers such as Nanyang Daily, Business Daily, Ling Poster, Xinhua Daily and Wenxing Daily all participated in the debate. The scale, duration and issues involved in this debate are truly unique in the modern history of China.
After two years of ideological debate, Xinmin Cong Bao was forced to stop publishing in August 1907, and the constitutionalists failed in the debate. The revolutionaries adhered to the democratic revolutionary program of the League, and distinguished the line between revolution and improvement. A large number of bourgeois and petty-bourgeois intellectuals divorced from the improvement line politically and ideologically, and stood on the side of the revolutionaries openly, greatly expanding the revolutionary ranks and accelerating the development of the revolutionary situation. As Sun Yat-sen later recalled, after the founding of the League, more than 10,000 people unexpectedly joined, and various provinces set up branches one after another, and the revolutionary trend rose from then on.
After the founding of the League, armed struggles continued, 1906 Ping, Liu and Yi Uprising; 1907 Chaozhou Huanggang Uprising, Huizhou Qinv Lake Uprising, Guangdong Fangcheng Uprising, Guangxi Zhenguang Nanguan Uprising; 1908 Qinzhou Uprising in Guangdong and Hekou Uprising in Yunnan; Guangzhou new army uprising1910; Guangzhou Huanghuagang Uprising1911; In addition, there are many uprisings launched by members of the League in Sichuan. Among them, the previous uprisings under the leadership of the League lasted for five years, reaching 10 times, affecting Hunan, Jiangxi, Hubei, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Sichuan, Zhejiang and other provinces. Some revolts, tens of thousands of people, just a few counties. Communist party, the new army, overseas Chinese, workers, peasants and small-scale craftsmen took part in the armed uprising, forming a continuous revolutionary situation throughout the country. The armed uprising led by the League and the spontaneous struggle of the people of all ethnic groups in China stirred up and influenced each other, which made the Qing court pay attention to one thing and lose sight of another.
Although the armed uprising led by the League was defeated by the Qing army one after another because of the lack of a solid mass base and reliable base areas, the torch of the armed struggle it ignited became a prairie fire, which fundamentally shook the reactionary rule of the Qing Dynasty, played a role in educating, mobilizing and organizing the masses, and made full preparations for the outbreak of the national revolutionary movement ideologically, organizationally, militarily and in the ranks of cadres. This was the victory of the Wuchang Uprising of the Revolution of 1911.
1911June 10, the revolutionaries launched the world-famous Wuchang Uprising. Wuchang Uprising shook the land of China like a huge thunder in a gloomy sky. 1 1 In the early morning, the revolutionary army occupied the whole Wuchang City. Then, Hanyang and Hankou were recovered one after another. With the victory of Wuchang Uprising, the first revolutionary regime-Hubei Military Government was established. This victory sounded the death knell of the Qing Dynasty, further aroused the revolutionary enthusiasm of the people of all ethnic groups throughout the country, and the revolution developed rapidly throughout the country.
Wuchang Uprising received a nationwide response. In just over a month, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Jiangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangxi, Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanghai, Sichuan and other 15 provinces and cities successively declared their independence and left the Qing Dynasty. On February 2, 65438, Nanjing, an important town in Jiangsu Province, was conquered by the Soviet-Zhejiang Revolutionary Coalition Forces, gradually replacing Wuchang, which was threatened by the artillery fire of the Qing army, and became a new revolutionary focus. The uprisings in communist party and the spontaneous struggles of people of all ethnic groups in various provinces against oppression also broke out one after another, sweeping across the country and rapidly forming a national revolutionary climax. At the same time, the constitutionalists were disappointed with the Qing court because they failed to convene a parliamentary struggle for three petitions, and they echoed or joined the independence movements in various places. The rule of the Qing dynasty is rapidly disintegrating.
With the rapid development of the revolutionary situation, in order to unify the revolutionary leadership of the whole country and consolidate and develop the victory achieved, the revolutionaries began to plan to form the central revolutionary government from the end of June 165438+ 10. However, due to the rapid development of the revolutionary situation and the independence of various provinces, the League of Nations could not control the overall situation. Constitutionalists seize the opportunity to control local political power at all levels, which brings many difficulties to revolutionaries to form political power. On February 25th, 65438, the revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen returned to Shanghai from overseas and was warmly welcomed. Sun Yat-sen's return to China has strengthened the revolutionary people's struggle courage and strengthened the revolutionaries' confidence in establishing a national unified revolutionary regime. In view of the attempts of constitutionalists, old bureaucrats and speculative politicians to manipulate and control the central government, Sun Yat-sen clearly put forward the correct proposition that "the organization of the government is of course decided by the party" in the process of preparing for the central revolutionary regime, breaking the deadlock in the formation of the interim government. 17 On February 29th, representatives from provincial governors' offices held an interim presidential election in Nanjing. With an absolute majority of 16, Sun Yat-sen was officially elected as the first interim president of the Republic of China. 1 91265438+1October1,Sun Yat-sen was sworn in in Nanjing and set about organizing the central interim government.
The establishment of the Nanjing Provisional Government announced the birth of the first national bourgeois republic in China and the end of the feudal monarchy in China which lasted for more than 2,000 years. Although the heads of the ministries of Nanjing Provisional Government were divided into revolutionaries, constitutionalists and old bureaucrats, the revolutionaries headed by Sun Yat-sen achieved the positions of interim president, army, diplomacy and education, and all the ministers were filled by revolutionaries, occupying a leading position and holding real power in the interim government. Sun Yat-sen presided over the formulation and promulgation of a series of policies, decrees and innovative measures conducive to social development, including the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China. Politically, it calls for national unity and national unity, opposes national oppression and national division, and strives to eliminate the decadent habits of feudal officialdom; Economically, it advocates revitalizing industry, determining the policy of developing national economy, formulating specific measures for developing industry and coordinating economic construction in various places, and making efforts to solve the livelihood problems of people of all ethnic groups. In education, we reformed the education system of the Qing Dynasty, formulated new education policies, and strived to cultivate new talents. All these reflect the wishes and interests of the national bourgeoisie in China and promote the development of the Chinese nation.
However, in the Nanjing Provisional Government, Li, an old bureaucratic warlord, occupied the high position of vice president, and the constitutionalists controlled important departments such as internal affairs, industry, transportation and justice, with equal strength. In the provisional Senate, most members are constitutionalists, who use bourgeois democracy to contain revolutionaries.
The establishment of the Nanjing Provisional Government became the decisive factor that forced the Qing emperor to abdicate and ended the imperial system, and it was also the greatest victory that the bourgeois revolutionary movement in China could achieve.
History has proved that the victory of the Revolution of 1911 opened the way for China people to strive for people's democracy, national independence, national unity and national prosperity. This is a great victory of the old democratic revolution with great historical significance in modern China.
Due to the oppression of reactionary forces at home and abroad and the increasing tendency of compromise within the revolutionaries, Sun Yat-sen had to resign in February of 19 12, and officially dismissed the post of president of Nanjing Interim Government in April of 12. The achievements of the Revolution of 1911 were usurped by Yuan Shikai, a feudal warlord and bureaucrat, and the Revolution of 1911 came to an end nationwide.
Yuan Shikai gained political power, but he could not immediately control the whole of China, nor could he immediately and quickly restore the semi-colonial and semi-feudal rule order disrupted by revolutionaries throughout the country and implement a comprehensive restoration. Bourgeois revolutionaries still retain seven or eight provinces and hundreds of thousands of troops.
1913 July 12, Li Liejun attacked Yuan Shikai in Hukou, Jiangxi, which was the last battle to end the Revolution of 1911. In this great war, the spontaneous struggle of the masses was combined with the struggle of the bourgeois revolutionaries for Yuan, and a considerable resistance struggle was formed nationwide. However, due to the disunity of the Kuomintang and different political views, the "second revolution" lacked the unified leadership of the party. After the outbreak of the "Second Revolution", revolutionary forces went into battle one after another, and their pursuit was neither unified nor limited to simply begging for Yuan. This not only caused a different pace, but also lost the support of the broad masses of the people. As a result, under the situation that the enemy was strong and we were weak, Yuan Jun was quickly defeated one by one. 12 In September, Sichuan begged Yuan Jun to give up Chongqing, and the "second revolution" that lasted for two months finally failed. The failure of the "Second Revolution" marked the realization of Yuan Shikai's autocratic rule. The armed forces held by the revolutionary party were scattered and all the territories they controlled were destroyed. The revolutionary leader, represented by Sun Yat-sen, fled overseas. As a result of the Revolution of 1911, the responsible cabinet was trampled on, the parliament was dissolved, the interim constitution was abolished, and the Revolution of 1911 ended in actual failure.
The Republic of China was founded.
19 1 1 After the Wuchang Uprising, all parts of the country responded in succession. From 10 in October to 18+27 in October, there are 65438 in Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Jiangxi, Shanxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Guangxi, Fujian, Guangdong and Sichuan.
With the victory of Wuchang Uprising and the successive independence of 14 provinces, the establishment of a unified central government has become the primary task of the revolution. 19 1 1 year 1 1 month, Wuchang group headed by Li and Shanghai group represented by Shanghai Governor Chen and Jiangsu Governor simultaneously launched activities to organize the central government. 165438+1On October 9, Li sent a telegram to the independent provinces in the name of the commander-in-chief of Hubei military government, requesting that representatives be sent to Wuchang for a meeting as soon as possible to discuss relevant matters of the central government. This electrification was resisted by the military governments in Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang and the Shanghai bourgeoisie. They called for the establishment of a temporary conference headquarters in Shanghai, and proposed that if representatives from more than two provinces attended the conference, the conference would be held immediately. 165438+1October 1 1, the governors of Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai invited the representatives of the provinces to hold a meeting in Shanghai. 165438+1October 15, representatives from Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian and other places opened a representative federation of the governor's office in Shanghai. However, Wuchang Group refused to back down and still insisted on moving the meeting to Wuchang. Because Wuchang is the first righteous district, representatives from most provinces have come to Wuhan, and the main leaders of the League, such as Huang Xing and Song, are also in Wuhan. Finally, Shanghai gave in and decided that representatives from all provinces would go to Wuhan to discuss the organization of the provisional central government, but all provinces still had to leave 1 more people in Shanghai as communication liaison offices. 165438+1On October 27th, Hanyang fell, and Wuchang City was under the fire of the Qing army. 165438+1On October 30th, representatives from all provinces had to hold a meeting in the British Concession in Hankou to discuss the establishment of a unified national central government. In addition to formulating the outline of the interim government, the meeting also determined that the interim government is a presidential government.
On February 2, 65438, Jiangsu and Zhejiang Revolutionary Army captured Nanjing. Huang Xing and Song also came to Shanghai from Wuchang, making Shanghai the center of revolutionary activities. On February 4th, 65438, in order to maintain the revolutionary leadership position of the League, Song, Chen and others organized a meeting of representatives of the provinces studying in Shanghai, and elected Huang Xing as the grand marshal of the revolutionary military government, Li as the deputy marshal, and the grand marshal presided over the provisional government of the Republic of China. In this regard, Huang Xing declined many times, but Li did not want to live under Huang Xing and opposed it. On June 4, 65438, representatives from Wuhan and Shanghai gathered in Nanjing for a meeting and decided to elect the president according to the outline of the interim government, with Nanjing as the seat of the interim government. 15, the meeting was informed that Tang, the representative of Yuan Shikai's peace proposal, had arrived in Hankou. Yuan Shikai agreed to * * *, and immediately decided to suspend the election of the president and wait for Yuan. Marshal temporarily assumed the presidency, and Li was elected as Marshal and Huang Xing as Deputy Marshal. At that time, Li was in Wuchang, and Huang Xing was a marshal, organizing an interim government in Nanjing. At this time, Huang Xing received the exact news that Sun Yat-sen was about to return to China, and stayed in Shanghai to wait for Sun Yat-sen to return to China.
On February 25th, 65438, Sun Yat-sen, the recognized revolutionary leader who led the anti-Qing revolution abroad for a long time, returned to Shanghai from the United States via London, England and Marseille, France. All walks of life in the country unanimously demanded that Sun Yat-sen be elected president. Because of his high prestige, on February 29th, 17, 17 provincial representatives held an interim presidential election in Nanjing, and elected Sun Yat-sen as interim president.
1 91265438+1October1Sunday morning, Sun Yat-sen took a special train from Shanghai to Nanjing and arrived in Nanjing in the afternoon. At that time, cheers were loud and military music was played together. Warships on the Yangtze River salute 2 1. In the evening, Sun Yat-sen arrived at the presidential palace. In the evening 1 1, Sun Yat-sen was sworn in and announced the establishment of the Republic of China. Sun Yat-sen said in his oath: "Overthrow the autocratic government of Manchukuo, consolidate the Republic of China, and seek happiness in people's livelihood. This national will obey in writing, be loyal to the country and serve the public. When the autocratic government collapsed, there were no accidents in China. Li Zhuo of the Republic of China has been recognized by the rest of the world, and Sven should be dismissed as interim president. I am here to swear to the people. " At the same time, the Declaration of the Provisional President of the Republic of China and the Letter to Chinese Compatriots were issued, stipulating that domestic policies are to achieve national unity, territorial unity, military and political unity, internal affairs unity and financial unity, "to unify the Tibetan areas of Han, Man and Mongolia into one country" and "to unify the ethnic groups of Han, Man and Mongolia into one person", laying a solid foundation for the Republic of China; Foreign policy is to clean up the government's "humiliating behavior." On October 2nd, 65438/kloc-0, Sun Yat-sen informed all provinces to change the solar calendar. The year of the Republic of China was 19 12. 654381October 3, the provincial representative meeting elected Li as the interim vice president, and adopted the list of chief ministers and deputy ministers of the interim government proposed by Sun Yat-sen, thus forming the interim government of the Republic of China. Commander Huang Xing, deputy commander Jiang Zuobin; Huang Zhongying, the chief of the navy, and Tang Yuming, the second chief; Foreign Minister Wang Chonghui and Second Minister Chen Wei; Chief Justice Wu, the second Chief Justice Lu Zhiyi; Chief Financial Officer Chen Jintao and Second Financial Officer Wang Hongyu; Cheng Dequan, the chief of the interior, is the second longest; Cai Yuanpei, the chief of education, and Jing Yaoyue, the second chief; Zhang Jian, chief industrial officer, and Ma, second chief industrial officer; Chief traffic officer Tang Shouqian, second son Yu Youren. Hu is the Secretary-General of the Presidential Palace. 65438128 October, the provincial representative meeting was changed into a provisional Senate, with the representatives of the provincial representative meeting as senators and Tilinsen as speaker. The historic Nanjing Provisional Government was finally born after a tortuous struggle.
After the establishment of Nanjing Provisional Government, under the leadership of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, a series of political and social reforms were carried out, and many decrees conducive to the development of economy, bourgeois democracy and cultural education were promulgated. Politically, the Nanjing Provisional Government formulated the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, which is equivalent to the Constitution, and clearly stated at the beginning that "the Republic of China is organized by the people of China" and that "the sovereignty of the Republic of China belongs to the whole people". It imitates the western bourgeois democracy and system, stipulates that the Senate, the interim president, the State Councilor and the court exercise sovereignty, and establishes a political system in which the executive, legislative and judicial powers are separated. According to the bourgeoisie's natural human rights, freedom, equality and fraternity, all citizens of the Republic of China are declared equal, and citizens enjoy freedom of person, residence, property, speech, publication, assembly, association, communication and belief, the right to petition, litigation, examination, election and stand for election, and the obligation to pay taxes and perform military service. Order the protection of overseas Chinese, prohibit the sale of Chinese workers, prohibit the sale of human beings, abolish the sale contract of handmaiden and all the status of master slave, and recognize those who are discriminated against? The so-called "untouchables", such as "D households" (that is, water residents), enjoy the same rights as others politically. In order to protect people's rights, officials are ordered to burn instruments of torture, prohibit torture and corporal punishment, rectify the police, maintain public order, rectify official management, and strictly prohibit violations of law and discipline. The interim government has also reformed some feudal stereotypes, cut off braids within a time limit, prohibited foot binding, prohibited planting, smoking and selling opium, prohibited prostitution and opposed feudal superstitions.
Economically, the Nanjing Provisional Government promulgated some laws to protect and reward industry and commerce, encouraged people to set up industries and engage in farming, abolished some exorbitant taxes and levies in the Qing Dynasty, welcomed overseas Chinese to invest in China, and helped some enterprises with practical difficulties to continue to operate. On February 5, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology informed all provinces to set up industrial divisions quickly and start businesses immediately. The Ministry of Finance uniformly manages foreign loans and bonds issued in China.
In terms of culture and education, the Nanjing Provisional Government put forward some progressive ideas and adopted some revolutionary measures. For example, advocate civic moral education with freedom, equality and fraternity as the main content; Advocate coeducation and reward girls' schools; It is stipulated that all types of schools at all levels should be renamed schools, and inspectors and principals should be renamed principals; Abolish reading classics and ban textbooks issued by the Qing government; New textbooks must conform to "the purpose of * * * and the Republic of China"; Some new industrial science and technology schools, women's normal schools and Mongolian and Tibetan normal schools have been established.
In foreign policy, Nanjing Provisional Government advocated tariff autonomy and abolished consular jurisdiction. However, in exchange for other countries' recognition of the Republic of China and avoiding the interference of foreign powers, they continued to recognize all the unequal treaties signed by the Qing government with other countries and promised to repay all the foreign debts and reparations borrowed by the Qing government. After the founding of the Republic of China, it was jointly attacked by internal and external reactionary forces. The imperialist countries refused to recognize it diplomatically, blocked and strangled it economically and threatened it militarily. Yuan Shikai, the leader of the reactionary forces, with the support of imperialism, adopted counter-revolutionary means of combining hard and soft to usurp the fruits of the revolution. Under internal and external pressure, Sun Yat-sen was forced to compromise, and was formally dismissed in favor of Yuan Shikai on April 1. Other major leaders of the League also stepped down one after another, and the new bourgeois revolutionary regime was strangled after only three months of existence. The regime fell into the hands of Yuan Shikai and began the dictatorship of the Northern Warlords. The Republic of China is just a signboard, and China is still a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society.
Although the Nanjing Provisional Government died young, the establishment of the Republic of China headed by Dr. Sun Yat-sen marked the demise of the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China for more than 260 years, the end of the feudal monarchy that lasted for more than 2,000 years in China, and the birth of the bourgeois republic in the history of China.
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