Twenty years of spring and autumn
Read turn 2075 1220 18-08-22 to share the collection.
First, the characteristics of China's early political system
First, the political form of Xia and Shang Dynasties
1, the emergence of the early "country":
(1) Time and region: About 5,000 years ago, with the development of farming economy, the original inhabitants of the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin began to enter the historical stage of early ethnic origin.
(2) Signs: the use of metal utensils, the emergence of polarization between the rich and the poor, the maturity of words, the emergence of cities, and the initial formation of etiquette.
(3) Political situation: The legendary Yellow Emperor used war to pacify the quartet, appease the people, enfeoffment officials, and determined the initial political management order.
2. Xia and Shang political culture;
(1) Xia Dynasty: With the formation of the hereditary system of the throne, the regime changed from "passing on sages" to "passing on children", and the system of "ruling the world" began, and clan relations became the basic political relations. (The Book of Rites records a passage of Confucius to the effect that in the ancient era of "Great Harmony", "the world is public"; The current "well-off era" is "the world is home". This shows the general evolution process from "the world is public" to "the home is the world". )
(2) Shang Dynasty: Shang nobles took blood as a link and practiced patriarchal clan system; The close combination of divine right and kingship.
Second, the enfeoffment system of the Western Zhou Dynasty
1. Premise: In the First World War of Konoha, Zhou defeated the main army of Shang Dynasty and established the Western Zhou Dynasty.
2. Contents:
(1) Zhou Wuwang fenced his children and heroes in different places, making them vassals of different countries.
(2) Duties, rights and obligations: vassal states enjoyed hereditary sovereignty in feudal countries, paid tribute to the Zhou Emperor on a regular basis, and provided rations and labor.
3. The object of enfeoffment system: children, heroes and the old nobles of Shang Dynasty who were close to Zhou Dynasty.
4. Evaluation: The enfeoffment system in the Western Zhou Dynasty was conducive to stabilizing the political order at that time, but later, with the change of strength, there was a situation in which powerful countries merged with weak countries, which gradually weakened the authority of Zhou Tianzi.
5. Disintegration: The vassal was powerful and enjoyed considerable independence. With the strengthening of the vassal state, the imperial power weakened and the enfeoffment system collapsed.
Third, the patriarchal clan system in the Western Zhou Dynasty.
1, origin: the patriarchal clan system in primitive society evolved directly.
2. Purpose: To consolidate the ruling order formed by the enfeoffment system, and to solve the contradictions among nobles in power, property and land inheritance.
3. Essence: it is a hierarchical system that distributes political power and maintains political ties according to blood relations.
4. Core: the right to inherit the eldest son.
5. Contents:
(1) The principle of inheritance of the highest power position within the same clan is the eldest son inheritance system;
(2) establish a system of sects;
(3) Form a patriarchal hierarchy of "Zhou-vassal-Qing Dafu-scholar".
6. Features:
(1) Distribution of political power according to kinship;
(2) Combining blood relationship with political relationship is the unity of "country" and "home".
7. Maintenance tool: ritual system
8. Impact (assessment):
(1) positive: At that time, the monopoly position of the nobility in politics was guaranteed, which was conducive to the stability and unity within the political group. For later generations, people have formed the concept of filial piety, which is conducive to cultivating the traditional virtues of the Chinese nation to respect the elderly and love the young.
(2) Negative: For the feudal society in China, the feudal politics in China showed patriarchal color, which was manifested in the unity of hierarchy, absolute subordination of monarch and minister, extreme imperial power, pro-expensive, nepotism and anti-intelligence.
Second, the politics of Qin and Han Dynasties moved towards "great unity"
First, "six kings finish, the four seas are one"
1, unified condition:
Objectively speaking:
(1) Politics: After a long-term separatist war, the people long for stability and peace, and reunification is the aspiration of the people.
(2) Economy: the level of productivity has been gradually improved. After Shang Yang's political reform, Qin was the strongest.
(3) Thought: Legalist thought emphasized unification and centralization, which promoted the unification of Qin State.
Subjectively:
Personal: Ying Zheng, King of Qin, is brilliant and good at employing people.
2. Process of unification: From 230 BC to 22 BC1year, Qin conquered six eastern countries successively, ending the war that lasted for hundreds of years since the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and establishing the first unified and centralized Qin Dynasty in the history of China.
3. Layout expansion:
(1) North: General Meng Tian led the army to attack the Huns in the north and recover the Hetao area; Build the Great Wall and the "straight road" and strengthen the northern border defense.
(2) South China: A canal was dug to connect Hunan and Lishui, unify Lingnan and set up a county.
(3) Southwest China: In the southwest, Wuchi Road will be established and officials will be appointed in some areas. This is the beginning of the region's entry into the territory of the unified regime of the Central Plains.
4. Significance: It not only expanded the scale of the unified empire, but also promoted the formation of the pluralistic and integrated pattern of the Chinese nation.
Second, the sea is a county.
1, implementation: Qin Shihuang adopted Li Si's suggestion and decided to adopt the county system as the central control system.
2. Structure (content):
(1) "County" is a local administrative division directly under the central government. The "county" has officers such as chief, county commandant and history supervisor, who are in charge of administration, military affairs and supervision.
② "County" belongs to the county.
(3) The local administrative institutions at the same level located in the minority areas are called "Dao".
(4) Below the county level, there are local grass-roots administrative institutions at the township and Li levels.
(5) The Museum is responsible for local public security and document delivery.
3. Features: Compared with the enfeoffment system of "divide and rule" since the Zhou Dynasty, the main difference is that the central government has formed a form of vertical management of local governments. The county chief is appointed, removed and transferred by the emperor, and cannot be hereditary.
4. Significance: The establishment of county system is an important link in the process of centralization, and it is also an important symbol that bureaucratic politics replaces aristocratic politics.
5. Local system in Han Dynasty: The Western Han Dynasty continued to implement the county system. At the beginning of Han Dynasty, vassal enfeoffment led to the coexistence of "county" and "state". Later, the local separatist forces competing with the central government were gradually eliminated, which further consolidated the "unified" regime.
Third, officials or officials?
1, the basic structure of the central government in Qin dynasty:
(1) emperor system: Ying Zheng, king of Qin, adopted the title of "emperor" and called himself "the first emperor", thus establishing the supreme position of the emperor and commanding the political, economic and military power of the whole country, which was handed down from generation to generation.
(2) The system of "three publics and nine ministers":
① "Three Publics": prime minister-assisting the emperor in handling political affairs; Qiu-in charge of the military; The censor is the assistant of the Prime Minister and is responsible for supervising the system.
② "Jiuqing": Feng Chang-in charge of the etiquette and educational affairs of the ancestral temple; Langzhongling-in charge of the palace guards; Weiwei-responsible for guarding the palace gate; Too servant-in charge of the palace and horses; Ding Wei-in charge of justice; Department of electricity-in charge of ethnic minorities and foreign affairs; Zong Zheng-in charge of royal affairs; Governing the internal history of millet-in charge of national finance; Shaofu-in charge of royal finance.
(3) The system of discussion in the DPRK: The discussion between the "three fairs" and Zhu Qing in the form of "discussion in the DPRK" became the basis of the emperor's administration. This is an effective way to reduce decision-making mistakes under autocratic monarchy. However, in the later years of Qin Shihuang, the system of imperial ministers participating in the discussion of state affairs was destroyed.
2. Historical influence:
(1) Front: It completely broke the traditional aristocratic enfeoffment system and laid the foundation for the ancient unified dynasty in China. This has had an important impact on China's political system for more than two thousand years.
(2) Negative: The Qin Dynasty relied on the autocratic authority of the emperor to strengthen the oppression of the people, which made the people's situation worse and worse, leading to the rapid intensification of class contradictions. The Qin dynasty collapsed after more than ten years of rule.
3. Bureaucracy in the Western Han Dynasty:
(1) Inheritance: The Western Han Dynasty generally followed the bureaucratic system of the Qin Dynasty, which was called "Han inherited the Qin system" in history.
(2) Development: During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, thirteen secretariat officials and a captain were set up, which strengthened the control of the local government. This is of great significance to consolidating state power and preventing the development of local separatist forces.
Third, the evolution and strengthening of absolute monarchy.
First, the law was promulgated.
1. Creation: The "emperor" system established by Qin Shihuang was inherited by successive dynasties.
2, characteristics and evolution:
(1) The emperor has an exclusive position in the world, combining administrative power, judicial power and military command. The laws and policies of the country depend entirely on the will of the emperor.
(2) Under the autocratic monarchy system, imperial power is arbitrary and often affects a series of important political decisions of feudal countries. The country becomes a country of one person, and politics becomes a politics of one person.
(3) Although there were changes in the bureaucratic system in the past dynasties, they all took safeguarding imperial power and serving the emperor as their basic principles.
(4) The relationship between monarch and minister is essentially the relationship between "master" and "slave".
Second, monarchical power and relative power
1. The contradiction between monarchical power and relative power: the prime minister or senior official of the ancient dynasty in China was the political assistant of the emperor. In the process of ruling, there will inevitably be contradictions between emperors, and emperors who want to make a difference often monopolize administrative power by limiting their relative rights.
2. Measures to restrict relative rights in past dynasties:
(1) Han:
(1) Liang Wudi frequently changed its prime minister.
(2) Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty specially selected talents from the status of soldiers and participated in the main decisions of the national political center, so that they could be around and participate in important politics. Senior generals personally appointed and directly commanded by the Emperor often attend confidential meetings. As a result, the "Han Dynasty" (also called "Inner Dynasty", composed of cronies and ministers around the emperor) was formed. "China and North Korea" made decisions on important affairs in advance within the imperial court.
(2) Tang: Measures: the central government has three provinces: Zhongshu Province, Menxia Province and Shangshu Province, and Shangshu Province has six departments: officials, households, rituals, soldiers, punishments and workers. Senior officials in the three provinces in the early Tang Dynasty were all prime ministers. At that time, there was a provincial yamen under the door, which was used as a place for the prime ministers of the three provinces to discuss military affairs. Later, all other officials who participated in the proceedings of the government affairs hall were on an equal footing with the prime minister, and their power was actually decentralized.
(3) Song Dynasty: Zhongshumen (commonly known as Futang) was set up as an administrative organization, which was called "Tongzhong Shumen Pingzhang Affairs" by the chief executive, and its position was equivalent to that of Prime Minister. In order to disperse the rights of the prime minister, "participating in politics" was added as the deputy prime minister. The Privy Council is in charge of military affairs, and its chief executive is a Tang Dynasty. Set up three departments, with the Prime Minister, Finance and Chief Executive as ambassadors.
(4) Yuan: The organization of the central government in the Yuan Dynasty mostly followed the Song system.
3. The purpose of the emperor to limit relative rights:
(1) prevent the prime minister from being authoritarian.
(2) Strive to strengthen governance and improve administrative efficiency.
(3) make up for the shortcomings of the prime minister's numerous political affairs and insufficient talents.
Third, the supervision system of ancient dynasties in China.
1, evolution:
(1) Qin dynasty: the establishment of supervisory organs has always been valued by the supreme ruling group in the Qin dynasty. In the central government and county-level administrative organs, officials are responsible for supervision.
(2) The era of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty: the whole country is divided into thirteen monitoring areas, called thirteen prefectures, and each prefecture has a secretariat to monitor local politics and strengthen the central government's control over the localities.
(3) During the Western Han Dynasty, the supervision of the central administrative organs was mainly undertaken by officials below the physician. The position of censor was second only to that of prime minister, and the organ in charge of censor was the most important supervision institution at that time.
(4) Tang Dynasty: Yushitai regularly visited prisons in Kyoto to inspect law enforcement.
(5) Song Dynasty: I would like to mention that the Criminal Prison Department is a full-time official who supervises the establishment of prisons.
(6) Yuan Dynasty: It was stipulated that major cases of human life were transferred to Yushitai by official documents, and then pressed by Yushitai. When the censor corrects an official, he can take measures such as arrest, interrogation and even acting first.
2. Assessment:
(1) positive: to a certain extent, it is conducive to supervising officials to standardize administration and prevent officials from corruption.
(2) Negative: The essence of the autocratic system determines that the actual effectiveness of the supervision system is bound to be limited. Supervisors do not perform their duties on behalf of society, but are only the eyes, ears and tools of the emperor. It is not uncommon for regulatory officials and even regulatory agencies to accept bribes and pervert the law.
Fourthly, the historical changes of the system of selecting officials.
1. Evolution of ancient official selection system in China: The evolution of ancient official selection system in China has roughly experienced three stages: official system, imperial examination system and imperial examination system.
2. Principal officials selection system:
(1) "official system": the official position is limited to the nobility, and the children of the nobility will inherit the power of their ancestors from generation to generation.
(2) "inspection system":
Meaning: It is an official selection system in which officials inspect suitable talents, recommend them to the central authorities and finally appoint them by the central authorities;
② Evolution: During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, officials were selected on the basis of the Nine-grade Official Law. The nine-grade official law is also called the nine-grade formal system. The local administrative department set up "Zhong Zheng" to evaluate the integrity of local people, and the difference between high and low is nine. The grade assessed by "Zhongzheng" became the basis for awarding officials.
③ Evaluation: Although the inspection system at that time was relatively perfect, both the object and content of inspection and the methods and procedures of inspection showed the characteristics of closure. Its form is promotion and wealth, and power is exercised in the world. People are not allowed to participate, and public opinion cannot be reflected.
(3) "Imperial Examination System":
Meaning: the system of selecting officials for the examination. Since the establishment of the imperial examination system in Sui Dynasty, the imperial examination system has become the main system of selecting officials in past dynasties. )
② Evaluation:
A. gradual:
A. Breaking the monopoly of aristocratic families on officialdom and expanding the foundation of the ruling class;
B. administrative efficiency has been improved;
C. A social atmosphere conducive to re-learning;
D. From the perspective of pursuing fairness and justice, it is reasonable to take strict examination as the way to select officials.
B. limitations:
A. The subjects and contents of imperial examinations are mostly beyond the scope of Confucianism, especially stereotyped writing in Ming and Qing Dynasties, and most of them are people who lack enterprising spirit and creative consciousness;
B the imperial examination system is actually a system that introduces intellectuals into the ruling group and is controlled by the highest authority.
Verb (abbreviation of verb) province setting
1. Changes in local administrative divisions:
(1) During the Qin and Han Dynasties, local administrative divisions were mainly divided into counties, and later states were established above the counties.
(2) The Tang Dynasty was divided into three levels: Dao, Zhou and County.
(3) The local administrative organs in Song Dynasty were set as Dao, Zhou and County.
(4) The local administrative divisions in Yuan Dynasty were provinces, railways, prefectures, prefectures and counties in turn.
(5) After the Yuan Dynasty, China still used the setting of provinces.
2. Provincial Settings:
(1) Establishment: The Yuan Dynasty established a system with Zhongshu Province as the local permanent administrative organization.
(2) Content: There are ten provinces in China, namely Shaanxi, Gansu, Liaoyang, Jiangbei, Sichuan, Yunnan, Huguang, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Lingbei. In addition to these ten administrative regions, there are two separate administrative divisions, one is the "belly" directly under the jurisdiction of Zhongshu Province, and the other is Tibet and parts of Sichuan and Qinghai under the jurisdiction of Zheng Xuan Academy.
(3) management:
(1) province became the name of the highest local administrative division, and it was controlled by the central government when exercising its power.
(2) Major civil affairs in each province must be reported to the Central Book Province, and military and political affairs must be reported to the Privy Council.
(3) Without a summons from the central government, provincial officials can neither change the tax system nor mobilize the army.
(4) In addition, provincial officials also visited the emperor regularly and reported to him.
⑤ In order to ensure the due diligence of provincial officials, the central government supervises them with supervisory agencies, and at the same time controls them by provincial officials walking around each other.
(4) Xuanzhengyuan: the central government organ in charge of Buddhism and religious and political affairs of Tibetan soldiers and civilians in the Yuan Dynasty.
(5) Evaluation (significance): The establishment of the province facilitates the central government's management of local governments, is of great significance to strengthening centralization, especially to adjusting the relationship between the central government and local governments, and has a far-reaching impact on future generations.
Fourth, the political form in the late autocratic era.
I the formation of the cabinet system
1, background:
(1) Zhu Yuanzhang, Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty, officially ordered the dismissal of the post of Prime Minister in view of the lesson that the Prime Minister's "arbitrary power and chaotic politics" hindered the emperor from exercising his power, making the six departments of official, household, ritual, soldier, criminal and industrial directly subordinate to the emperor, and clearly declared it as a custom. The prime minister system will be abandoned forever.
(2) Zhu Yuanzhang abolished the post of prime minister, which achieved the goal of high centralization, but it also led to the disadvantage that complicated government affairs were concentrated in the hands of the emperor.
2. Establishment: Judy, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, established the cabinet system, which was an auxiliary institution for the emperor to handle state affairs.
3. Authorities:
(1) At first, officials with lower official positions were on duty in Wenyuan Pavilion at Wumen, and then the power and status of officials who joined the Pavilion gradually improved.
(2) The Cabinet is a political institution established by the emperor to strengthen autocracy. However, it has never obtained legal status, nor has it become a central and formal administrative agency. Its terms of reference are always unclear, and it cannot formally command six ministries.
4. Influence: strengthening imperial power; Later, restrained by eunuchs supervised by Li Si, eunuchs participated in politics, hindered the power of the cabinet, and even controlled the cabinet, which was an important reason for the increasingly dark politics in Ming Dynasty.
Second, the military sector.
1, military department settings
(1) Settings:
① Reason: During the Yongzheng period of the Qing Dynasty, in order to meet the needs of the northwest military, a military computer room was set up, and it was renamed the military department soon.
(2) Power: from simply dealing with military affairs to dealing with other government affairs.
(2) Status: The military department is the most important central organization to assist the emperor in handling government affairs.
(3) Features:
(1) Military ministers are all appointed by the emperor, and they can only do things according to the emperor's will (kneel down to record, upload and give orders), so the military and political power is further concentrated in the hands of the emperor.
(2) The military department has simple organization, capable personnel, and high efficiency.
③ Located in the imperial palace, there is little external interference, but the characteristics of closed political decision-making are more obvious.
(4) Impact:
(1) the establishment of the military department, further strengthen the monarchy, the autocratic centralization reached its peak.
(2) Its establishment and the implementation of the secret folding system have obviously improved the administrative efficiency of the central government.
2. Political trend since Ming and Qing Dynasties: centralization has been gradually strengthened, and the autonomy and initiative of local politics have been increasingly suppressed.
Third, the frontier policy of the Qing Dynasty.
1. Overview: During the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong periods of the Qing Dynasty, the rulers made unremitting efforts to stabilize and consolidate the national territory, and the territory of modern China was basically laid at this stage.
2. The basic principles of the frontier policy of the Qing Dynasty: respect the social customs and religious beliefs of all ethnic groups and strive for the upper class of all ethnic groups; Centralized management of major issues, decentralized management of minor issues, and local administration.
3. Function: Stabilize border areas.
4. The territory of the Qing Dynasty: 18 provinces, 5 general jurisdictions (General Ili, General Ulyasutai, General Heilongjiang, General Jilin General and General Shengjing) and 2 ministerial jurisdictions (Minister of Tibet and Minister of Qinghai).
5. Main institutions: The Central Committee of the Qing Dynasty established the Li Fan Yuan, an ethnic affairs institution in charge of the border areas, which is equivalent to the six ministries. (At first, Lifanyuan only managed Mongolian affairs. Later, it was also responsible for administration, taxation, military punishment, household registration and religion in Xinjiang and Tibet. )
6. Main measures:
(1) The central government also pays special attention to traffic construction and military defense in border areas.
(2) The Qing Dynasty achieved remarkable results in ruling Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang.
7. Impact:
(1) is conducive to consolidating the development of a unified multi-ethnic country.
(2) It is conducive to the development and prosperity of local economy and promotes the localization of local ethnic minorities.
(3) it is conducive to consolidating the politics of the central government.
8. "Change the soil and return to the flow"
(1) Implementation: The Yuan Dynasty implemented the chieftain system in southwest China (mainly Yunnan, Guangxi, Guizhou and southern Sichuan). The leader of the local nobility is called the toast. )
(2) soil improvement and backflow:
(1) Since the Ming Dynasty, there has been a practice of abolishing the chieftain and implementing the rule of flowing officials. (First place: Ming Chengzu, toast in Guizhou)
② In the Qing Dynasty, especially during the Yongzheng period, a large-scale practice of "returning home" was carried out in southwest China.
(3) During the Qianlong period, most of the chieftains were abolished and changed to official rule.
(3) Impact: The rule of the central government has been greatly strengthened.