Classical Chinese reading is a compulsory content of junior high school Chinese senior high school entrance examination, which usually examines the following aspects:
1, can correctly understand the meaning of classical Chinese words (classical Chinese content words, classical Chinese function words, interchangeable words, etc. ).
2. Be able to correctly translate classical Chinese sentences into modern Chinese.
3. Be able to understand and summarize the main contents of the article.
4, can grasp the author's thoughts and feelings expressed in the article, improve their appreciation.
There are three types of extracurricular classical Chinese reading problem design:
That is, word interpretation, sentence translation and content understanding. Different problems are solved in different ways:
1, word explanation question.
Most of these topics examine the phenomenon of polysemy of notional words in classical Chinese, which are basically learned by students in classical Chinese in class. When solving problems, we should first apply the meaning of the content words in classical Chinese that we have learned, and then contact the context test. Fluency after the exam is the correct answer.
2. Sentence translation questions.
Translated sentences should be translated freely on the basis of literal translation.
① Explain the meaning of key words in the draft (literal translation); Then, write the general meaning of the sentence (free translation).
When translating sentences, we should pay attention to the following problems: first, proper nouns such as year number, person name, place name, official name, object name, book title and country name should be kept as they are, and no translation is needed.
For example, in the spring of four years (year number), Teng (name) was appointed to guard Baling County (place name). In the spring of Li Qing's fourth year, Teng was demoted to Baling County Order.
2 words that have no practical meaning in the sentence should be deleted.
For example, "Chen Shengsheng is from Yangcheng" and "Zhejiang"
③ Some special sentence patterns in classical Chinese (such as verb inversion, preposition object and adverbial postposition). ) is different from that in modern Chinese, so we should make appropriate adjustments in translation.
For example, "Sorry, you don't like it!" "Your mental deficiency is too serious.
(4) If the translated sentence is an ellipsis, the omitted elements should be supplemented.
For example: "Uncle Naidan said' Chen' (ellipsis)." They wrote the word "Chen" on the silk with vermilion.
3. Content comprehension questions.
There are three ways to solve this kind of problem:
(1) Quote the original sentence to answer;
② Extract key words from the original text to answer;
(3) Organize written answers in your own words.
Among the three methods, the accuracy of the first and second methods is generally higher.
Four steps of reading comprehension after class in classical Chinese;
Step 1: Browse the topic quickly.
The extracurricular reading questions of classical Chinese have a characteristic: some topic options show the meaning of some keywords in the text, while others suggest the main content of classical Chinese. Browsing the topics helps students to understand the general meaning of classical Chinese. Therefore, after receiving the extracurricular classical Chinese reading essay, we should first quickly browse the topics after the essay.
Step 2: Analyze the topic carefully.
Generally speaking, reading classical Chinese after class will lead to problems. Pay attention to and carefully analyze the paragraph headings. Because most of the topics themselves summarize the main content of classical Chinese.
For example, in an exam, I took an extracurricular reading essay in classical Chinese. The title of this subject-predicate structure summarizes the main content of the paragraph, and we can know the main content of the paragraph after reading the title. In short, a careful analysis of the title of a paragraph can help us quickly understand the main content of classical Chinese.
Step 3: Read the full text quickly with comments.
When reading a passage of classical Chinese after class, some difficult words in classical Chinese are generally annotated. These notes help students understand the main content of classical Chinese accurately.
So, don't ignore these notes, but take them with you to read the full text quickly. In addition, it should be noted that in the process of reading the full text, don't stop and think hard when you encounter a "roadblock", but continue reading. In short, read the full text quickly, not completely, but understand the main idea of the article.
Step 4: Answer the question with the right medicine.
Comparison between classical Chinese and modern Chinese;
Peach Blossom Garden, Zuiweng Pavilion, Cow-solving Expert, Model, Six Kingdoms, Lu Xun's Scream Preface, Zhu Ziqing's Green, Bing Xin's Paper Boat and Yi Shu's The Most Expensive Tree in Hong Kong are limited to those who have studied classical Chinese, and they must have a certain degree of traditional literary accomplishment, which can be understood by ordinary primary school students. They are widely circulated in the Chinese world and are mainly recited.
Name of test center: Translated sentences Translated sentences:
Write the meaning expressed in classical Chinese sentences in modern Chinese, and mainly investigate the understanding of key words in sentences. There are two translation methods: literal translation and free translation.
(1) Literal translation: The so-called literal translation refers to the method of equivalent translation according to the words and sentences of the original text. It requires loyalty to the original text, meticulousness and accurate expression of original intention.
For example, Fan Chi invited him to study crops, and Confucius said, "I am not as good as an old farmer."
Fan Chi asked to learn how to grow crops. Confucius said, "I am not as good as an old farmer."
(2) Free translation: The so-called free translation refers to a modern translation method that carries out overall translation on the basis of a thorough understanding of the original content to reflect the charm of the original. This method is often used to translate poetry.
When learning classical Chinese, we should insist on using literal translation to practice modern translation. Only in this way can we effectively improve the reading level of classical Chinese.
The concrete methods of literal translation of ancient Chinese mainly include translation, transfer translation, addition translation, deletion translation and reservation.
① Translate word by word according to the original word order. This is the most basic method and the first step of literal translation.
For sentences with the same word order and syntactic structure in ancient and modern Chinese, it is not necessary to change the word order of the original sentence when translating today, as long as the words in the original sentence are selected from modern Chinese.
The strange stone attacked me. Male will play, Cao Gui, please see. (Cao Gui Debate)
The Qi army attacked our country. Zhuang Justice wants to fight, and Cao Gui asks to meet him.
② Shifting means that some word orders and expressions in ancient Chinese are different from those in modern Chinese, and words should be moved according to the expression habits in modern Chinese when translating.
For example, a small country that is not suitable for it will not be a woman. ("Zheng killed Shen Hou")
Don't go to a small country, it can't hold you.
Adjustment: Don't go to a small country, which can't accommodate you.
(3) Supplement refers to the places that were omitted or expressed too concisely in ancient Chinese, and necessary supplements should be made when translating today.
For example: a momentum, and then decline.
The first drum beat boosted morale, and the second drum beat dropped.
Addendum: The first drum beat boosted morale, and the second drum beat [morale] declined.
Contrary to "supplement", deletion means that individual words in the original text can be deleted without translation.
Some expressions in classical Chinese and some function words are no longer used in modern Chinese, and there are no similar syntactic structures and corresponding function words.
In this case, as long as the meaning of the original text is clearly expressed in the translation, individual words may not be translated.
For example, the wolf is far from Jane. (The Legend of Zhongshan Wolf)
The wolf estimated that Zhao Jianzi was far away.
⑤ Reservation means that some words in the original text can be directly retained in the translation without translation.
All words with the same meaning in ancient and modern times, especially many basic words, such as people, cattle, mountains, grass and so on. Of course, you can keep it from being translated;
Words that represent ancient things that have disappeared, such as names of people, countries, historical place names, country names and official numbers, year numbers, posthumous title, proper names, specialized academic terms and technical terms, can generally not be translated. Knowledge points that are easy to confuse and make mistakes in classical Chinese translation;
It is a principle that the translation of classical Chinese is mainly literal translation, supplemented by free translation.
To achieve "a pair of words, the sentence pattern should be reflected, the sentence is not wrong, and the meaning of the sentence has not changed."
However, due to the limited ability of understanding and language expression, students often make mistakes in some easy-to-make and confusing points when answering questions, resulting in some improper points. The main mistakes and confusions are:
First, proper nouns, forced translation
When translating classical Chinese, some proper nouns, such as country name, dynasty name, official name, place name, person name, year number and some appellations, can be preserved without translation.
Because these nouns are not easy to be accurately expressed in modern words and do not need to be translated, some students insist on "painting the snake to add feet" and forcibly translate them.
Example: In the first year of Yongle, he entered the DPRK and stayed as an old official. Thanks again after a while.
Yongle people were recruited into Korea in the first year and stayed in their original official positions. Soon, he resigned and left.
In the first year of Yongle, he was called into the DPRK and stayed in his original office. Soon, he resigned and left.
Error analysis: the sentence has made the mistake of forcibly translating the inherent nouns, and "Yongle" is the title noun.
Second, translation does not translate, and the words are mixed.
When translating sentences, some words are not fully translated or not translated, which leads to mixed text and white, neither fish nor fowl.
Ex.: At that time, Tao Kan was a loose official, who mainly wrote letters and recommendations, made friends with each other and looked forward to his wife.
At that time, Tao Kan was an idle official, and Zhou's visit recommended him to be the main office. He became friends with Tao Kan and married his daughter to Zhan Tao, the son of Tao Kan.
Error analysis: this sentence has made an untranslated mistake and the text is ambiguous. "Wei" in the sentence is a verb, which should be translated as "Ren" and "Yi" is a preposition, which should be translated as "Ba".
At that time, Tao Kan was an idle official. Zhou Zhou recommended him to be the chief bookkeeper, made friends with him, and married his daughter to Zhan Tao, the son of Tao Kan.
Third, today's ancient meaning is different, and the ancient meaning is interpreted with today's meaning.
With the progress of society, the meanings of many words have also changed-some have expanded, some have narrowed, some have changed their emotional colors, and some have shifted their meanings.
Therefore, the meaning of a word should be determined according to its context in translation, so as to avoid blind substitution.
Example: "My brother is not Mrs. Jude's brother; If I die, how can I live! " Then he cut himself with an axe.
My brother is different from my wife's brother, and besides, he died for me, how can I live! So he cut his neck with an axe.
Error analysis: the word "madam" in this sentence has different meanings from ancient times to the present, and it should be "everyone"
My brother is different from everyone's brother, and besides, he died for me, how can I live! (Zhang Ne) So he cut his neck with an axe.
Example: I was summoned and met my cronies.
When he was summoned by the emperor, he met his cronies.
Error analysis: "cronies" should be "cronies" and made the mistake of blindly replacing the ancient with righteousness.
When summoned by the emperor, he was close to and trusted by the emperor.
Fourth, take words out of context and mistranslate words.
There are many polysemous words in ancient Chinese, which have different interpretations in different contexts. Therefore, translation must be combined with context to avoid mistranslation of words.
Posthumous title, for example, is immortal and has made outstanding achievements, but he has made outstanding achievements.
Mistranslation: posthumous title was handed down to future generations because great virtue gained a good name and small virtue gained a bad name.
Error analysis: "so" can be translated as "how to do" or "because" in classical Chinese. This sentence should be combined with the context "what is it used for?"
Posthumous title was handed down to future generations and will never be forgotten. Great virtue has a good name, while small virtue has a bad name.
5. What should be filled in is not filled in, and the composition is incomplete.
Some sentences in ancient Chinese are omitted, while others are not, but they do not conform to the expression habits of modern Chinese. Only by adding some elements can the sentence be complete, otherwise it will easily lead to incomplete elements.
Ex: I love it, but I am not rebellious. Let her husband learn from the past, and the more he knows how to treat it.
I love him and won't betray him. Let him study there and he will know more about governance.
Cause analysis: the elements in the sentence are omitted and not supplemented in translation, which leads to the unsmooth sentence.
I love him and (he) will not betray (me). Let him study there (for politics), and he will know more about governance (fiefdoms).
Sixth, the tone is not adjusted, and the word order is chaotic
Inverted sentences are commonly used in ancient Chinese, and the word order is inconsistent with modern Chinese, so it should be adjusted when translating;
There are still some sentences that are not inverted, but because the expression habits in ancient times are different from those in modern Chinese, the word order does not conform to modern grammar, so it should be adjusted when translating.
Exodus: If you want to sneak into the south of the Yangtze River, you must unite to defend it.
I want to secretly move the team to the south bank of the river, which is closer to Shangliu, and combine forces to attack the enemy.
Error analysis: this is an adverbial postposition sentence, and the word order should be adjusted when translating into modern Chinese.
I want to secretly move the team to the south bank of the river, so as to get close to Shangliu and merge the troops to fight the enemy. Explanation of sentence translation:
It is the focus of classical Chinese examination, and it should be implemented in words and sentence patterns when translating.
There are two forms of translation of classical Chinese: literal translation and free translation. Whether literal translation or free translation is adopted, we should pay attention to the following points:
(1) Understand the original text carefully, put words into sentences and sentences into articles, and don't expect words to be meaningful.
For example, the "desperate situation" in "The Story of Peach Blossom Garden" can't be interpreted as the "desperate situation" in modern Chinese. Because from the full text, it is a "Xanadu", and there is no problem of staying or not landing. So "despair" should be "isolated place".
(2) Implementing key words in translation.
For example, in the translation of "a dog sits in front" in Wolf, the key is to find out that "dog" is a noun as an adverbial in the sentence and translate it into "like a dog" in order to correctly translate this sentence.
When the key words are implemented, the sentence translation will be smoother.
(3) There are many ellipsis sentences in classical Chinese, which should be supplemented in translation.
For example, "high spirits, then collapsed, three exhausted" ("Cao Gui Debate") is translated as "the first time you beat the drum, your morale will be refreshed; The second time (drumming), morale was low; The third time (drumming), morale has been exhausted. " The words "again" and "three" here should be translated into "drums".
(4) Literal translation is generally adopted. If literal translation is inconvenient to express meaning, use free translation.
For example, you can see clearly the fine hairs newly grown on birds and animals in autumn, which shows that you can see clearly the minor problems.
(5) Some words can be omitted in translation.
In classical Chinese, some auxiliary words only play the role of expressing mood, and sometimes they can not be translated;
Some auxiliary words only mean pause and do not need translation; Some words are meaningless in sentences, just to fill syllables, which can be omitted in translation;
Some words are only connected and may not be translated. For example, the word "husband" is a phrase, which should be deleted when translating;
Another example is "As time goes by, my eyes seem to fade". Here, the word "Zhi" is a syllable auxiliary word, which is used to fill syllables after words expressing time without translation.
(6) All the names of territories, names of people, official names, year numbers, emperor numbers and words with the same meaning in ancient and modern times can be copied directly without translation.
Such as "assistant minister Shi Zhong, assistant minister Guo Youzhi, Fei Yi, Dong Yun, etc. All of them are loyal and honest (for example) Shi Zhong, Assistant Minister are official names, Guo Youzhi, Fei Yi and Dong Yun are names, and Deng is synonymous in ancient and modern times, so you can copy them without translation.
(7) The word order of some sentences in classical Chinese is different from that in modern Chinese, so the word order should be adjusted in translation to make it consistent with modern Chinese.
Such as prepositional phrases, prepositional object sentences, subject-predicate inversion sentences, attributive postconditions, etc. For example, "if the butcher is afraid, he will lose the bone" ("wolf") should be translated as "if the butcher is afraid, he will lose the bone to the wolf (chew)".
In addition, it should be noted that the translation should maintain the tone of the original text and be translated into declarative tone, exclamatory tone and interrogative tone.
Principles to be grasped in sentence translation;
1. The sentence is fluent and the composition is complete. (Pay attention to complete the translation when omitting the subject and object, and put brackets. )
2. The implementation of words, mainly literal translation, supplemented by free translation. The method is: thoroughly understand the classical Chinese in class, read it repeatedly, master it skillfully, and then expand it appropriately.
Name of test center: notional words in classical Chinese:
Like content words in modern Chinese, it refers to words that have real meaning, can act as sentence components independently, and can generally answer questions independently.
Content words are subdivided into nouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals, quantifiers, pronouns, onomatopoeias and exclamations.
Function words are subdivided into adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary words, exclamations and onomatopoeia.
Mastering more notional words is the key to improve the reading ability of classical Chinese. Characteristics of notional words in classical Chinese:
When learning the notional words in classical Chinese, we should pay special attention to its three main features in grammar:
First, the word is ambiguous;
Second, the ancient and modern changes of word meaning;
The third is flexible use of parts of speech, and the fourth is interchangeable words. Function words and content words:
Function words are words with grammatical meaning or functional meaning but no complete lexical meaning. Function words include adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary words, exclamations and onomatopoeia.
The common function words in classical Chinese are "You", "He", "Hu", "Nai", "Qi", "Ruo", "What", "Yan", "Meaning", "Cause", "Yu", "Zhe" and "Zhi".
On the contrary, they are notional words, that is, those that are often tested in exams. Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals, quantifiers and pronouns.
There are a large number of notional words in classical Chinese, and mastering more notional words in classical Chinese is the key to improve the reading ability of classical Chinese.
Methods of testing the meaning of notional words:
1. Text migration method
This method needs to learn classical Chinese well and can be transferred in time.
2. Physical examination methods
Infer the meaning of the text through common sense or learned knowledge. If it doesn't conform to common sense and truth, we should consider whether there is cheating.
3. Context reasoning method
See if the notional words conform to the context, context and common usage in classical Chinese. This is an objection to notional words.
4. Grammatical reasoning
Analyzing the meaning of special notional words with the help of grammatical knowledge.
5. Intertextuality and meaning.
Synonymous correspondence and antonym correspondence
The structural sentences are the same, which can be inferred by comparing the context.
6. Idiom reasoning
We can infer the meaning of notional words in classical Chinese from the idioms we know, and see if the immigration is smooth.
Nine methods to interpret notional words in classical Chinese;
The key to solving classical Chinese test questions lies in firmly mastering the basic knowledge of classical Chinese, and cultivating the comprehensive ability of analysis and judgment on this basis.
In the usual study, we should pay attention to the learning of real words and function words, implement the meaning and usage one by one, and then master the characteristics of classical Chinese sentence patterns.
The following are several ways to infer the meaning of notional words in classical Chinese:
1. Inferring meaning from shape.
In Chinese characters, pictophonetic characters account for the majority. Pictophonetic characters are divided into phonetic symbols and semantic symbols, among which semantic symbols provide conditions for us to infer the meaning.
For example, Mimi is gone, in which Mimi is called a wooden boat. We don't know much about Mimi, but we know that Mimi is a combination of wood and Mimi.
2. Inferring the meaning of words from interchangeable words.
The interchangeable words in classical Chinese are an obstacle to straighten out sentences, but we can deduce the meaning of this word according to the law of interchangeable words.
For example, it is obviously meaningless to understand "fatigue" as "fatigue" and win complete victory without fatigue. At this time, the meaning of "fatigue" becomes the key to understand the whole sentence. At this time, if we associate the word "blunt" which means "not sharp" according to the law of approximate fallacy of homophones, we can translate the whole sentence into "the weapon is still sharp (the enemy can defeat without fighting) and win completely", and the meaning of the sentence will be clear.
3. Infer the meaning according to the word structure.
Chinese word formation has rules to follow, and the meaning of words can be inferred by following its word formation.
For example, in "people are rich but don't know how to save shirts", "saving shirts" is a coordinate phrase. As long as we know that "T-shirt" means "pity", then "deposit" is synonymous with it and "comfort" associated with "T-shirt". Another example is that "survival" in the "survival principle" is antonym juxtaposition, and "existence" means "survival".
4. Inferring meaning from intertextuality.
Intertextuality is a common phenomenon in ancient Chinese.
For example, out of the land, out of the house, where "out" and "out" are intertextual. If we know that "exhaustion" means "exhaustion", we can infer that "exhaustion" means exhaustion
5. Infer the meaning of words from the text.
In a sentence, if the meaning expressed is opposite, then one side of the word used constitutes the antonym of the other side.
For example, "I've been thinking about it all day, so it's better to learn it in an instant." We know "all day" and "one moment". This is an antonym, so we can infer that "a little while" means "a short time" from the meaning of "all day" or "all day"
6. Infer the meaning of words from the context.
This method infers the meaning of the word to be explained by combining the semantics of the context.
For example, when Miao Xian praised Lin Xiangru to Wang Zhao, he said, "I think he is a soldier". If it is interpreted as "brave" or "courageous", it is obviously inappropriate, but if it is related to the following words "resourceful" and his performance in "Return to Zhao with a Perfect Treasure" and "Mianchi Meeting", it can be inferred that "warrior" is in the sentence.
7. Use the article to extend the meaning.
Words have original meaning and extended meaning. If we can't explain the word according to its original meaning, we can consider it from its extended meaning.
For example, the original meaning of "peep" in "dressing in court and looking in the mirror" is to look in through a small hole or gap, which is obviously unexplained. We can infer the meaning of "photo" from its original meaning.
8. Fill in the ellipsis and infer the meaning.
In classical Chinese, some sentence elements are omitted, which undoubtedly increases the difficulty of understanding the meaning of sentences.
For example, it is difficult to implement the meaning of the word "Ben" in "going against the wind, not getting sick or getting tired". If the word "horse" is added after the word "Ben", the meaning of the word "Ben" can be realized as "running the horse", so that the whole sentence will be smooth.
9. Infer the meaning of words by analyzing syntax.
In the translation and understanding of classical Chinese, syntactic analysis can be used to determine the part of speech, and then the meaning can be inferred according to the part of speech. This method has played a great role in explaining polysemous words, movable words, generic words and function words that span several categories.
For example, in the sentence "Water mist can't cover near", the word "Xin" precedes the adverbial "Nan" and the predicate "Qiu", which can be inferred as an adverb and can be interpreted as "indeed".
According to the specific requirements of the stem and the stem in solving problems, several interpretation methods of interview can be adopted, and they can also be used comprehensively to infer from different aspects repeatedly to improve the accuracy of solving problems.
Content words and function words:
From a functional point of view:
Content words can act as subjects, objects or predicates, while function words cannot act as these components.
In a sense:
Content words indicate things, actions, behaviors, changes, properties, places, times, etc. Some function words only play a grammatical role and have no specific meaning in themselves.
Such as "de, ba, Bei, suo, you, ba", and some express some logical concepts, such as "because, moreover, and, or".
In addition, there are some differences between notional words and function words:
(1) Content words are mostly free words (that is, they can form sentences independently), while function words are mostly sticky words (they cannot form sentences independently).
(2) The position of most notional words in the syntactic structure is not fixed, and they can be prepositioned or postpositioned.
For example, "you" can be composed of "I have" and "all have", and it can also be composed of "someone", "progress" and "have".
The position of most function words in syntactic structure is fixed.
For example, "Mo", "De" always comes after (OK, new), and "Bei" and "Ye" always come before (also go, be found).
(3) Content words are open and function words are closed.
The so-called open class refers to a big class in which it is difficult to list members one by one in the grammar book.
The so-called closed class refers to a small class that can exhaust its members.