The emergence of the official position in our country began in the Xia Dynasty, and the establishment of official positions only appeared with the emergence of the country, so the official position can only begin in the Xia Dynasty. In ancient China, the official posts were built differently in different dynasties, and the situation was very complicated during which they were changed, increased and decreased.
The development of official posts in ancient China can be roughly divided into three periods:
The first period was the Xia and Shang dynasties, which lasted about 1 years. The monarch was called "Hou" and "Wang", and his main officials were called "Shi" and "Wu". In the late Shang Dynasty, the elders of the royal family called themselves "father teachers" and "Shao Shi", who were responsible for assisting the king, such as ji zi and Bigan. Servants who manage housework are called "ministers", "butchers" and "Yin". (In the reign of Yin Zhou Wang, he was fatuous and helpless, and his brother Wei Zi resigned and disappeared; His uncle ji zi repeatedly remonstrated and was punished as a slave; Zhou Wang's other uncle, Bigan, died because of remonstrance. Confucius said, "Yin has three benevolence". )
The second period is from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Spring and Autumn Period, about 6 to 7 years. The monarch is called "the son of heaven" and "the king of heaven". Heirs to the throne are called "Prince" and "East Palace". Wang's wife is called "Hou". ("Poetry _ Xiaoya _ Beishan" said: Pu (pǔ Pu) under the sky, is it the king's land, leading the land, is it the king's minister? ") The fief of a vassal is called the country, the fief of a doctor is called the city, the royal family is the central government, and the country and the city are local governments. In the central government, except for the king, the three public offices (Taishi, Taifu and Taibao) have the highest positions, and they can act for the king when he is young or absent. The government department headed by Qing Shi manages military, administrative, judicial and foreign affairs, while the education and cultural department headed by Tai Shi manages divinity, education, secretary and calendar, which Jin Wen also calls "Qing Shi Liao" and "Tai Shi Liao".
under Qing Shi, there are three doctors: Stuart, Sima and Sikong. Stuart is in charge of land and servants, Sima is in charge of military taxes and chariots and horses, and Sikong is in charge of major projects such as building cities and roads.
Under Taishi, there are positions such as internal history, imperial history, Taibu, Zongbo, and musicians. Internal history is in charge of planning the affairs of great doctors, imperial history is in charge of archives, Taibu is in charge of divination, Zongbo is in charge of ritual, and musicians are in charge of music and education. Temporary tutors are called Xiang, those in charge of the royal family affairs are called Zai or Tai Zai, and those in charge of the palace guards and teaching martial arts are called Shi Shi, the palace guards are called bēn, and Wang's near ministers are called Xiao Chen. The establishment of local governments is about the same as that of the central government, however, the ruling ministers are appointed by the Zhou Emperor and have been attacked from generation to generation. They can only be called "Qing" or "Zheng Qing" or "Zhengqing", but not "Qing Shi".
The third period started from the Warring States Period and lasted for more than 2,3 years. The characteristics of this period are as follows: ① the status of the monarch was greatly improved and the power was highly concentrated; (2) in the state institutions, the history of witchcraft and imperial clan nobles do not occupy an important position, while the servants and attendants of the monarch rise to the main position; (3) the ruling area is becoming more and more vast, the organization is becoming more and more huge, and the division of duties is becoming more and more detailed and complicated.
1. monarch
Xia, Shang and Zhou are called "Hou", "Wang", "Tianzi" and "Heavenly King".
the warring States period began to call "emperor" and "emperor". (The emperor is the title of supreme god, and the emperor originally described the emperor. )
Qin began to call himself "the emperor" until the Revolution of 1911.
Huns call Shan (ch_n) Yu, Shan Yu's wife E Shi (yānzhī), Wu Sun's Kunmo, Gao Che's Houloulou (f_) Le, Xianbei, Rouran, Turkic and Uighur (h_). Tubo is called "Zambo".
2. Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the highest official position under the monarch to assist the monarch in handling government affairs.
Xia Shang was a witch history, the Western Zhou Dynasty was a minister in the Spring and Autumn Period, and the prime minister after the Warring States Period.
The prime minister developed from the vassal of the monarch. Zaiben is the title of the monarch's head butler, which means "assistant". Managing state affairs with the leader of the vassal is the essence of the prime minister. The title of prime minister was first seen in "Han Feizi _ Xianxue Chapter": "Therefore, the prime minister must start from the state department, and the fierce general must be sent to the pawn." Www.dbxk.com
The prime minister's official position originated earlier. Chu set up Ling Yin, Qi and Qin set up Xiang, Song set up Da Yin and Wu set up Tai Zai. Guan Zhong, who helped Qi Huangong to establish hegemony, was the first outstanding prime minister in the history of China. After the reunification of Qin, the title of Prime Minister was "Prime Minister".
after emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, the functions and powers of the prime minister were transferred to Shangshutai (Shangshutai was originally a small organ in charge of sending and receiving documents in the emperor's private house), and its chief officer was Shangshuling (eunuch was called Zhongshuling).
At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the powerful ministers Dong Zhuo and Cao Cao returned to the post of Prime Minister or Xiangguo, but they took up this post themselves, and their real power was above the emperor.
After the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Shangshutai became independent from the Imperial Palace and became the general organ of the central government to carry out government affairs. The chief and deputy chief of Shangshutai are all prime ministers. After Shangshutai changed from an imperial clerical organ to an administrative organ of the imperial court, in order to receive and send documents, draft and convey imperial edicts, the Ministry of Chinese Books was set up as a document processing organ, and its chief officers were Chinese Book Supervisor and Chinese Book Order, who were also prime ministers. Zhongshu province is more important than Shangshu province because it is in charge of confidential information and close to the emperor. In ancient times, it was called "Phoenix Pool" and "Phoenix Pool". The post of prime minister in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties belonged to Shangshu Province, Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province, so the governors of the three provinces were also called prime ministers.
in the sui and Tang dynasties, the name of the prime minister changed. In the Sui Dynasty, it was called the Internal History Order and the Internal Book Order, and in the Tang Dynasty it was called the Right Phase Order, the Fengge Order and the Ziwei Order. Shangshuling held this post when Li Shimin was the king of Qin, but he didn't say anything later. Therefore, in the Tang Dynasty, the chief executive of Shangshu Province only had left and right servants to shoot (y_).
in the northern song dynasty, there was another office of the prime minister, which was called "government hall", "under the door of Chinese books" and "Chinese books". In the Song Dynasty, the Privy Council was the highest military organ, and its chief, the Tang Dynasty Ambassadors and the Deputy Ambassadors were consuls commensurate with Fu, and together with the Prime Minister, they were called "Zaizhi".
in the Ming dynasty, the positions of Zhongshu province and prime minister were abolished, and college students such as Huagai Hall, Jinshen Hall, Wuying Hall, Wenhua Hall, Wenyuan Pavilion and Dongge were established as advisers to the emperor. Later, these college students became the actual prime ministers, known as "auxiliary ministers", and the chief college students were called "yuan auxiliary" and "records auxiliary", with the heaviest authority and presided over the major affairs of the cabinet.
Ming imitation system in the early Qing dynasty. It was "Walking in the South Study Room" in Kangxi's time and "Minister of Military Aircraft" after Yongzheng.
among all kinds of official positions, the prime minister changes most frequently, with no fixed position, title or personnel, which is determined by the fundamental nature of absolute monarchy. The monarch is inseparable from the prime minister, and he is most worried that the prime minister's power is too heavy and the power is sidelined. This is the main reason for the constant change of the prime minister's official position.
3. The division of government agencies started from the Western Zhou Dynasty.
There are six departments in charge of the Western Zhou Dynasty: Situ, Sima, Sikong, Sikou, Daxiangren and Zongbo. These six official positions represent six departments. People who hold these positions are generally doctors.
in Qin and Han dynasties, there was a saying of "nine ministers", which was a respectful title for the heads of various departments in the central government. The monarch's family affairs and state affairs are not divided, and political affairs and court affairs are mixed together, which is an important feature of the nine nobles in Qin and Han Dynasties.
① Tai Chang (Feng Chang) is in charge of the etiquette of the ancestral temple, and his subordinates are Tai Shi Ling who is in charge of the astronomical calendar, Tai Yi Ling who is in charge of medical treatment, and the doctor who is in charge of teaching Confucian classics;
(2) the guard who is in charge of the palace gate is led by a doctor, and introduced and conveyed by a flatterer;
③ Wei Wei is in charge of the guard at the palace gate;
④ The servant is in charge of the emperor's chariots and horses, and is also in charge of the national horse administration;
⑤ Ting Wei is the highest judicial officer in China;
⑥ the pawns receive minority affairs;
⑦ Zong Zheng is in charge of royal affairs;
⑧ Managing the history of millet, managing the rent, money, salt, iron and the state's fiscal revenue and expenditure;
⑨ The Shaofu is in charge of royal money, royal supplies and various court services.
In addition to Jiuqing, there is Jin Wu, who is in charge of the public security of the capital. He will be a master in charge of the palace, ancestral temple, mausoleum and other civil construction, and Da Changqiu will announce the queen's will and manage the palace affairs. Nine Qing and these three Qing are twelve Qing.
after Wei and Jin dynasties, the institution of Shangshu developed rapidly. The total number of Shangshutai has soared from seven in the Qin Dynasty to more than 6, making it the general organ of the central government to carry out government affairs. After that, each Cao in Shangshu gradually became a department, and it was determined to be six departments in Sui and Tang Dynasties. In Tang Dynasty, it was named as official, household, ceremony, soldier, punishment and worker, and it has been used since then in Qing Dynasty. Six departments are the main government departments after Sui and Tang Dynasties.
① the official department is in charge of the appointment, removal, examination and honouring of civil officials throughout the country;
② The Ministry of Household Affairs is in charge of household registration, land, taxation, money and grain, fiscal revenue and expenditure, etc.
③ The Ritual Department is in charge of etiquette, sacrifice, imperial examinations, schools, etc.
④ The Ministry of War is in charge of the selection of military attache and military administration;
⑤ The Ministry of Punishment is in charge of the national judicial administration;
⑥ The Ministry of Industry is in charge of various projects, craftsmen, land reclamation, water conservancy and transportation.
For most of the functions and powers of the Qin and Han Dynasties, the name of Jiuqing still exists, but the content has changed greatly, and some of them are even completely different, such as:
① Too often called Taichang Temple Secretary;
② Guanglu Xun is called Guanglu Siqing;
③ Wei Wei is called Wei Wei Si Qing;
④ Taipu is called Taipu Temple Minister;
⑤ Ting Wei called Dali Temple Secretary;
⑥ Zong Zheng called Zongzheng Temple Secretary;
⑦ Dahonglian is called the secretary of the temple;
⑧ the senior sinong is called the secretary of sinong temple;
pet-name ruby taifu is called taifu temple secretary.
There were only five of the nine temples left in Qing Dynasty: Dali Temple, Taichang Temple, Guanglu Temple, Taibu Temple and Crack Temple.
Zhao Xuan Temple, set up in the Northern Wei and Northern Qi Dynasties, was the first specialized institution in charge of Buddhism in China, with Datong and Tong as its chief officials.
the sui and Tang dynasties began to set up five prisons. The five prisons in the Tang Dynasty were: imperial academy, Shaofu, Jiangzuo, Junqi and Dushui. Www.dbxk.com
① imperial academy is the institution in charge of school education;
(2) Shaofu supervisor is the institution in charge of royal money, royal supplies and various court services;
③ The general supervisor is the institution in charge of palace, ancestral temple, mausoleum and other civil construction;
④ Military Equipment Supervision is the organization in charge of the manufacture, storage and distribution of military equipment;
⑤ the water superintendent is the institution in charge of canals, beams, dikes and weirs.
In the Qing Dynasty, only imperial academy was left in the five prisons, while the other four prisons were successively merged into the Ministry of Industry. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, a new Qin Tianjian was established to take charge of the astronomical calendar. In addition, from Sui and Tang Dynasties to Qing Dynasty, Tai Hospital and Zongren House were established successively. The central administrative department in Qing Dynasty can be summed up as six departments, five temples, two prisons, two hospitals, one government and sixteen institutions.
4. Military attaché
In the Western Zhou Dynasty, there was no distinction between military and political affairs. The rulers were in charge of both administration and military affairs, and the army was divided into the left, middle and right armed forces in combat. In the Spring and Autumn Period, the generals of the upper, middle and lower armed forces said that they would be generals, generals (also known as marshals) and generals, which was the beginning of Wu Zhi's establishment.
After Qin and Han Dynasties, the establishment of military attache can be divided into three aspects:
① guarding the generals of the imperial palace and the capital;
② Wu Zhi in charge of military administration;
③ the general who leads the troops in battle.
Tai Wei (called Fu by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty) is in charge of the national military administration. Senior military attaché s include generals, generals in title of generals in ancient times, generals in chariot riding and generals in Wei.
After the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the ministers with the highest power often gave them the title of "Fake Huang Yue" when they went out to war, which meant to represent the emperor. The local military and political chiefs have been given the title of "making a festival" and given the power to kill officials below the intermediate level. Wu Zhi's aides said to join the army or the military.
in the Tang dynasty, the governor-in-charge took charge of the festival, which was called our festival envoy. After the mid-Tang Dynasty, the imperial court formed ten new central imperial armies: left and right Yulin Army, left and right Long Wujun Army, left and right Shence Army, left and right SHEN WOO Army, and left and right Shenwei Army (the most powerful, with a lieutenant of the guard army as the commander-in-chief of the imperial army), with generals, generals, longwu, Shence and SHEN WOO as unified armies.
in the song dynasty, regular troops were all called forbidden soldiers, and there were more than 8, people in Renzong. The Imperial Guards are under the command of three official officials, who are called Dian Shuai, Ma Shuai and Bu Shuai respectively. The military officers who coach martial arts are all coaches and coaches, but the status of coaches is very low. (For example, Lin Chong) The power to transfer the forbidden soldiers lies in the Privy Council and is directly controlled by the emperor. The Privy Council is the military administrative organ, and its chief executive is a tang dynasty. In local roads, prefectures, and states, there should be a military commander or a military commander (hereinafter referred to as the commander), or a military commander (hereinafter referred to as the commander). (such as Zhang Dujian, Lu Tiha)
In Yuan Dynasty, Genghis Khan's guard was called "Xue-fearing", and the chief was called Xue-fearing leader. During Kublai Khan's reign, five guardian armies were established, namely, the left, right, middle, front and back, as a standing army for guarding the capital, and each guardian was in command.
in the Ming dynasty, the army implemented the guard station system. Health is the basic military establishment, which consists of thousands of households and hundreds of households. Its chief officer, Wei called the commander, called thousands of households and hundreds of households, and also had a general flag and a small flag. The emperor's pro-army increased from 12 guards to 26 guards, and the Royal Guards were one of them.
the Qing army was divided into two systems: the Eight Banners and green camp. The Eight Banners include Manchu Eight Banners, Mongolian Eight Banners and Han Army Eight Banners; Green camp soldiers, also known as green flag soldiers, were composed of Han people recruited after entering the customs in Qing Dynasty. The governor in charge of the green campers is called Jiumen Prefect. The titles of generals stationed in various places are crowned with the names of their places of residence, such as General Shengjing and General Yili. In order to suppress the peasant uprising in the Qing Dynasty, the soldiers recruited temporarily in the local area were called "Yong" and their troops were called "Yong Camp". The Xiang and Huai armies established by Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang were the main armed forces of the Qing government to suppress the insurgents.
5. Supervisors and admonishers
Supervisors are officials (eyes and ears) who supervise officials at all levels on behalf of the monarch. An admonisher is an official who bluntly exhorts and corrects the monarch's faults. In ancient times, the supervisor and the remonstrator were also called Taiwan remonstrance, and they were also called speech officials.
The supervisor was first established in the Warring States Period, when the secretary of the monarch, Yushi, served concurrently.
Qin and the Western Han Dynasty set up the Imperial History Mansion, with the Imperial History Doctor as the head and Cheng as the assistant. Those who keep files in the imperial palace and urge hundreds of officials are called imperial advisers; Going out to monitor the county's reputation as a supervisor. In case of special emergency, the emperor temporarily dispatched an imperial censor with the power of killing, which is called embroidered imperial censor, or embroidered imperial censor. At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, the censor was changed to be a general, the censorate to be a censorate, the censorate to be an officer, and the censorate to be a shaofu, which became a special supervisory organ. Since then, Yushi has been the proper name of the supervisor.
After Wei and Jin Dynasties, Yushitai became independent from Shaofu and became a national supervisory organization.
The Yushitai in the Tang Dynasty was divided into three courtyards: Taiyuan, Dianyuan and Chayuan.
in the Ming dynasty, Yushitai was changed to Douchayuan. Each province has a provincial judge department, with the provincial judge as the chief, in charge of justice and supervision, and is known as the supervision department.
in the Qing dynasty, Douchayuan was headed by Zuo Du Yu Shi and Zuo Fu Du Yu Shi.
the remonstrance officer was set earlier than the supervisor. In the early years of the Spring and Autumn Period, Qi Huangong set up a great remonstrance, which was the beginning of remonstrance officer setting. The doctor of traditional Chinese medicine in the state of Jin, the left and right division of Zhao and the left disciple of Chu all belong to the nature of remonstrating officials.
There were admonishers in Qin and Han Dynasties, but there was no special admonisher organization. In the Han Dynasty, Dr. Guang Lu, Dr. Tai Zhong, Dr. Jian, Dr. Zhong San, and Mr. Yi Lang were appointed as official posts, all of which belonged to Guang Lu Xun, who was in charge of discussions, attended by emperors and consultants. Shi Zhong and Zhong Chang Shi in the Eastern Han Dynasty became official titles, belonging to a small government.
the sui dynasty changed the position of serving the middle school to accept words, while Wu Zetian added left and right gleanings and left and right supplements.
in the song dynasty, it was changed to make up for the deficiency, to make up for the deficiency, to make up for the justification, and to set up an admonition court, where the doctors of the left and right counsels were the chief officers, and the admonition and justification belonged to them.
after the Liao dynasty, the remonstrating officials existed in name only, or both.
6. The secretary and literary attendants of the monarch
A secretary refers to an official who works in writing and books around the monarch. The secretary of the monarch was differentiated and developed from the position of historian. During the Warring States period, the monarch's secretary had different titles, such as imperial history, main book, palm book, imperial book and history book. For the monarch