(1) ZhuangGongSheng, his style is unexpected. ("Zheng Haihan Duan")
(2) What is wrong cannot be ignored. (Biography of Zhang Shizhi)
(3) The past also bends, and the newcomers also believe that bending trusts and benefits each other. (under cohesion)
Obviously, the application of example 1 is negative, and negation is negation. Example 2: Wrong application measures and the significance of placement; The letters in Example 3 are contrary to buckling, and can only flow smoothly when applied. However, the authors of these sentences did not use words that should have been used, but used words that had nothing to do with meaning but sounded similar. This is the so-called cheating phenomenon in ancient books. Here "Cuo", "Cuo" and "Xin" are common words, and "Cuo" and "Shen" are their original words respectively.
Although predecessors also called it "borrowing" and "expressing meaning by sound", it is different from "borrowing" in one of the six books. Borrowing characters in Liushu is a method of word-making, a law of borrowing writing symbols from other characters instead of making special writing symbols for some words, and a "borrowing sound" of "there is no such thing as words" (except those who create them later); General loan is a flexible phenomenon of ancient Chinese characters, that is, instead of using the original character, it is temporarily replaced by other words with similar pronunciation, which are "original character" and "Yi Yin".
Why is there cheating without using it? There are many reasons. Fundamentally speaking, although Chinese characters are an ideographic writing system developed on the basis of pictographs, images and meanings, for various reasons, they cannot achieve the complete unity of form and meaning, so they have been borrowed since the beginning of word creation. This shows that Chinese characters, as symbols for recording Chinese, are originally allowed and exist by means of sound. Although there are differences between words and words, there is no essential difference between borrowing sounds and expressing meanings. As long as it can be established in the process of use and recognized by the society, it will not cause obstacles to communication. Therefore, it is not surprising that some holidays are common in a certain era, and people at that time took it for granted. In ancient times when there was no orthography and reference books to promote the standardization of Chinese characters, people used Chinese characters less strictly than later generations. In addition, after the formal change of Chinese characters, the intuitive ideographic function of glyphs no longer exists, and there are many words with similar sounds, and their shapes are difficult to remember. People are not familiar with the plan when they are rushing to write, so it is easy to write "other words", as Zheng Xuan said: "The beginning of the book is also hasty, and there is no word, or it is just interesting to use the analogy of sound." As for some ancient books that have been lost, they can only be recorded and circulated according to someone's dictation. It's easy to pay attention to the sound and ignore the font when recording. Some "other words" have been circulating for a long time and gradually become a habit, so the corresponding relationship between many interchangeable words in ancient books and their own words (that is, one) is quite fixed.
The extensive use of interchangeable words in ancient books is one of the reasons why ancient books are difficult to read. When we meet a common word, we must break the shackles of its vocabulary, and find its original meaning by "seeking meaning by sound" instead of "hardware decoding" to find meaning in the word. Wang Niansun, a scholar in Qing Dynasty, put it well: "Those with similar voices should borrow more classics. Scholars seek justice by sound, break the borrowed words, and read them in their own words, which will be thawed; If it is a strong solution by borrowing words, it is a disease. " The predecessors took the above example (1) as "Mao Mei" literally, and "Wujiang was born in his sleep and didn't realize his life until he was born." When I wake up, the child has been born, so why "surprise"? Therefore, this explanation is "using words to harm words", which shows the importance of reading ancient books.
(2) The relationship between interchangeable words and interchangeable words.
The phenomenon of using Chinese characters in ancient books is complicated. From different angles, there are different relationships between interchangeable words and interchangeable words. Mainly includes:
1. Phonetically speaking, interchangeable words and interchangeable words have homonym, disyllabic or rhyming relations. For example:
(1) the letter to the knot, people. (Book of Rites)
(2) Not much help, relatives. ("Mencius Gongsun Chou")
(3) So the ninth Wan Li is next, and then the current wind. ("Zhuangzi Xiaoyao Tour")
(4) Not dead. ("Warring States Policy Zhao Ce")
⑤ Deng is a southern state. (The Book of Songs, Elegance and Han Yun).
6 from ten disciples. (Supplement to Biography of Historical Records and Funny Biography)
"Bei" in the example 1 and "Pan" in the example 2 are loanwords of "Bei" and "Rebellion" respectively, and "Bei" and "Pan" are homophonic. "Pei" in Example 3 and "Mei" in Example 4 are loanwords of "skin" and "Mao" respectively. Pei and Pi, Mei and Mao are disyllabic; The word "Deng" in Example 5 and the word "Suo" in Example 5 are loanwords of "Cheng" and "Xu" respectively, and the rhymes between Deng and Cheng, Suo and Xu overlap.
2. From the shape point of view, if interchangeable words or interchangeable words are pictophonetic characters, most of them have the same phonetic symbols. Because pictophonetic characters account for a large proportion in Chinese characters, and the premise of communication and separation is that the sounds are similar, so communication and separation are more common in pictophonetic characters, while in pictophonetic characters, most of them have the same phonetic symbols. For example: wealth-material, painting-Taoism, constant-taste, worship-singing, basic-enthusiasm, Hubei-gray, bandits-non, static-net, poking, saying-taking off, litigation-praise, worry-ignoring, tin giving. Of course, words with homonyms and different pronunciations are not limited to pictophonetic words with the same phonetic symbols, so both interchangeable words and interchangeable words are different, such as "You-You", "Yes-You" and "Fun-You". , are other cases, but only a small proportion.
3. From the perspective of metonymy, there are differences between interchangeable words and interchangeable words. The so-called single borrowing means that nails can borrow B, but B can't borrow A ... For example, the extension of flexion and extension can be replaced by sincere words, but sincere words can't be replaced by extended words; Broken backs can be replaced by the number of broken backs, but the number of broken backs cannot be used to replace words and the word B can be replaced by each other, that is, when A is a word, B is a loan word, and when B is a word, B is a loan word. For example:
(1) Even, do not insult, the so-called strong face, is it expensive? (Report to Ren Anshu)
(2) eighty years old, give one stone to rice, twenty years of meat, and five buckets of wine. ("Han Moon Hee")
(3) An Youwei is a dangerous man in the world, but what if he is not surprised? (About Cumulative and Sparse Storage)
(4) rivers should be outstanding, autumn sun should be violent, and vastness can hardly be used. ("Xu Xing")
Example ① "Yi" is a loan word, and "Ji" is its original word; Example 2 "Ji" is a loan word and "Yi" is the original meaning. "Yi" and "Ji" are festivals. Example 3 "Shang" is a loan word and "Shang" is its original word; Example 4 "Shang" is a loan word, and "Shang" is the original meaning. "Shang" and "Shang" are mutual festivals. Similar examples include: love-sadness, talent-cutting, reason-solidity and so on. The phenomenon of borrowing words in ancient books is mostly single borrowing, but less mutual borrowing.
4. In terms of the corresponding number of words, there is generally a one-to-one relationship between interchangeable words and interchangeable words, that is, one word is only borrowed by another word, but many words can be borrowed by two or more words, forming a one-to-many relationship. For example, the word "discrimination":
(1) Lord qimeng, who can tell? ("Zuo Zhao Zhuan Gong Year")
(2) Will the husband take advantage of the righteousness of heaven and earth to conquer the debate of six qi and swim endlessly, and stay for evil? ("Xiaoyao Tour")
Look at the mountains and rivers and distinguish the gods. (Historical Records of the Five Emperors)
(4) In the ancestral temple dynasty, there was a struggle for supremacy. (Historical Records Confucius Family)
Example 1 Du pre-notes the cloud: "Debate, cure also." The meaning of governance lies in "doing"; Example 2 Guo Qingfan's "Collection of Solutions" said: "Discrimination, reading will change"; Example 3 The debate in Shangshu Shundian today is "embarrassing" (ancient and modern); The argument in The Analects of Confucius and the Rural Party is "poop". The words "debate" can be used interchangeably, such as "doing", "changing", "worrying" and "then". In addition, from the cabinet, trusts, giants; Can pass, can come, can go and can forget; Appropriate, clumsy, enemy, clumsy; Ability, tolerance, innocence, intimacy and so on all belong to this category.
(3) Recognition of interchangeable words
As I said before, Tong Jia expresses his meaning by borrowing sounds, provided that the sounds are similar, so the identification of Tongjia characters is mainly based on the sounds. When a word can't be explained by its original meaning or extended meaning in reading, we should consider whether it is common or not. For example, The Analects of Confucius Yang Huo: "Yang Huo wanted to see Confucius, but Confucius didn't see it, so it belongs to Confucius." How to explain the word "return" in this sentence? According to Shuowen, the original meaning of boudoir is that women get married, which obviously doesn't make sense. If there is a reward, the extended meaning of "reward" seems to be feasible, but Confucius didn't lend it to Yang Huo dolphins. How can he say reward? The context means that Yang Huo wants to send a dolphin to Confucius, so that Confucius can see Confucius politely when paying homage. There is no gift in the original meaning and extended meaning of Guizi, so it can be seen that there is a word "feed" dedicated to food in ancient times, which has the same meaning, so it can be preliminarily concluded that Guizi is a typo of feed. Looking up the same book "Cabbage", there is also a saying that "Qi people belong to female music, Ji suffers from it, and will not go to Korea for three days", which means that Qi will give female music to Lu. Look up other ancient books and there are similar examples. This shows that borrowing is a kind of feedback, not accidental, and it has been regarded as a habit. This is an example of its kind. In addition, in ancient books, different secretaries often use different words for the same thing, which is also a good material for us to understand Tong Jia phenomenon. "[Yang Huo] belongs to Confucius Dolphin", and Zheng Xuan's annotation means "belongs to feed". This is an example of another language. With these similar examples and examples in different languages, loanwords classified as feed can be determined without doubt.
There are two points to be paid attention to when recognizing interchangeable words: (1) You should have common knowledge of ancient phonology. The so-called homophones are in terms of ancient sounds, not modern sounds. Ancient and modern pronunciation has changed a lot. Up to now, words with similar pronunciations are not all homophones, and some may become completely different. And words with different pronunciations may become the same and similar. Therefore, when we use sound as a clue to identify the truth, we must not only take the current voice as the standard. (B) In the absence of other examples, we should not speak out of turn just because of homophones. There must be sufficient evidence and reasons to judge whether a word is borrowed as a word. Some scholars overemphasize "seeking righteousness by sound", and there are many examples of misinterpreting ancient books solely for borrowing, which we should take as a warning. There are many notes about common interchangeable words in ancient books, and there are some examples in common books such as Ci Yuan and Ci Hai. Beginners should master a certain number of commonly used interchangeable words by reading and consulting reference books frequently.