The French Renaissance arose with the development of commodity currency economy and the germination of capitalist economy. The economic and political demands of the emerging bourgeoisie are incompatible with the theology and scholasticism of the Christian church. For their own interests, they gradually developed their own ideology and culture under the banner of reviving classical culture. The Renaissance movement contains complex class contents, but it is the first bourgeois ideological emancipation movement in European history.
The Renaissance in France was deeply influenced by Italian and Nordic cultures. Erasmus, a Nordic humanist, and some Italian humanists have traveled and lectured in France, spreading humanistic culture. During the Italian War, French kings and nobles brought back a large number of humanistic works, artistic treasures and manuscripts of ancient writers from Italy, which deeply influenced the French cultural and artistic circles. The French Renaissance developed on the basis of absorbing and inheriting excellent cultures at home and abroad.
The Renaissance in France began at the end of 15 and flourished in 16. /kloc-In the second half of the 5th century, many people in France began to pay attention to the study of classical culture. /kloc-At the beginning of the 6th century, the first generation of French humanists appeared, such as Boudet Detapur Pierre, who devoted themselves to the research, examination, collation and editing of classical works. In the fields of painting, sculpture and architecture, Italy's influence on France is almost dominant. However, in the field of literature and thought, it absorbed foreign culture on the basis of French traditional culture and formed France's own humanistic culture. For example, French humanists maintained their knowledge of classical culture and inherited and developed skepticism in the ideological field. Good at irony in literary expression, etc. The development of humanistic culture was hated and stifled by the Christian church and the University of Paris, but because humanistic culture met the needs of feudal monarchs and landlords and nobles in some aspects, it was also supported and sheltered by some kings and princes. King Francis I supported humanists and established the French Academy in 1530, mainly studying Greek, Latin and Hebrew, which became the base for humanists to compete with Paris University. Francis I's sister Queen Margaret of Navarra's court became a refuge for humanists. Humanist culture developed rapidly in the struggle with feudal Christian culture.
2 Franco-Prussian War
The Franco-Prussian War was a huge and far-reaching war between Prussia and France for European hegemony from 1870 to 187 1. This war directly led to the collapse of the Second Empire of France and the outbreak of the proletarian revolution of the Paris Commune, which prompted Prussia to complete the reunification of Germany and establish the German Empire. At the same time, the seeds of hatred have been sown between Germany and France, which have been affecting the relations between the two countries for more than half a century and, to some extent, the situation in Europe as a whole.
Before the war broke out, according to the resolution of the Vienna Conference after Napoleon was completely defeated in 18 15, the German Federation headed by Austria was established on German soil. It includes 34 feudal monarchies and 4 free cities. But each state is independent in internal affairs, diplomacy and military affairs. Among them, Austria and Prussia are the two largest countries in the Confederacy, and they have been fighting for the leadership of Germany for a long time. Prussia is a military feudal kingdom. 186 1 After William I ascended the throne in, in order to realize the ambition of annexing Germany, he immediately expanded his armament and appointed Bismarck, who was famous for supporting the monarchy, as Prime Minister and Foreign Minister. During Bismarck's tenure as prime minister, he believed in power politics and pursued an iron-blooded policy. 1864, he wooed Austria as an ally and instigated the war against Denmark. After the defeat of Denmark, the contradiction between Poland and Austria intensified. 1866, Bismarck joined forces with Italy to launch a war against Austria. The Austrian army was defeated and forced to make peace with Prussia. On August 23rd, Prussia and Austria signed a peace treaty in Prague, Austria withdrew from the German Confederation, and the old Confederation was dissolved. Bismarck took the opportunity to annex the four northern states that supported the Austrian War, and in the following year established the North German Federation headed by Prussia (governing 22 states and 3 free cities with a population of 3 1 10,000). Although the Puo-Austrian War established Prussia's dominant position in Germany, the reunification of Germany was not finally completed. The four southwestern states of Bavaria, Baden, Wiltenberg and Heisenberg still maintain their independent status. These four States are close to France. Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte did not want Germany to be strong, and exerted great influence to prevent the four countries from reunifying with Germany. This prompted Bismarck to make up his mind to solve the dispute with France by force.
/kloc-France in the middle of the 0/9th century, economically speaking, capitalism showed a momentum of sustained development, the industrial revolution was in the final stage of completion, and its production capacity ranked second in the capitalist world, second only to Britain. But politically, it is an extremely reactionary and aggressive country. In order to safeguard the interests of big capitalists and consolidate their dominant position, Emperor Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte adopted a counter-revolutionary military dictatorship at home, concentrated all power in his own hands, and expanded the country's army, police and bureaucracy to an unprecedented scale. The people were extremely dissatisfied with the imperial regime. We adopted an expansionist policy abroad and launched aggressive wars frequently. For example, in 1853- 1856, France joined forces with Britain to fight the Crimean war with Russia and carve up the sphere of influence of the Eastern Mediterranean. 1859, France took part in the Austrian war in the name of "aid" for the revival. From 1856 to 1860, France stepped up its aggression against China and launched the second opium war with Britain. After that, he helped the Qing government suppress the Taiping Revolution.
France has long coveted the rich natural resources in the neighboring Rhine region of Germany, but it has never had a chance to start. 1866 After the end of the Puao War, the Franco-Prussian relationship quickly entered an unprecedented period of tension. Both France and France are consciously and actively creating conditions for winning an expected large-scale battle.
At the end of 1960s, due to Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte's military dictatorship and reactionary domestic and foreign policies, class contradictions in France intensified, and all kinds of forces against Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte strengthened unprecedentedly. In particular, the French proletariat is also very active. With the establishment of 1864 First International, Paris and other cities set up international branches one after another to lead workers to publicize socialism, hold frequent political strikes and instigate the overthrow of Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte's reactionary rule. Faced with such a turbulent and tense domestic situation, Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte is eager to launch a foreign war to divert people's attention, get rid of the domestic political crisis and satisfy the greed of the bourgeoisie. At this time, Bismarck took the opportunity of Spanish throne succession, set a trap, and induced the French emperor Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte to embark on the road of declaring war. 1870, 19 In July, France finally declared war on Prussia, which started the Franco-Prussian War.
After France declared war, the Franco-Prussian parties carried out intense war mobilization and army mobilization. By the end of July, France was organized into the Rhine Army, and eight armies, about 220,000 people, were assembled in Alsace and Lorraine on the Franco-German border, with Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte as commander-in-chief and Loeb as chief of staff. Before mobilization, Prussia's plan was to organize the enemy, concentrate on crossing the border, take Frankfurt directly, cut off the ties between North and South Germany, and force the southern German States to remain neutral and defeat Prussia with all their strength. At the same time, Pu Jun also assembled three legions between Mace and Strasbourg in the middle reaches of the Rhine, with about 470,000 people, with William I as commander in chief and Mao Qi (old Mao Qi) as chief of staff. The plan is to concentrate superior forces, attack Alsace and Lorraine, try to panic in the border areas or drive them to the north of France, and then lay siege to Paris to force the enemy to surrender.
On August 2nd, the French army launched an attack on Pu Jun in Saarbrü cken, thus starting the Franco-Prussian War. On August 4th, under the command of William I and Mao Qi, Pu Jun fought a prepared battle and fought back to France. At the beginning of August, the French army lost successively in several battles, such as Walter, Spellen, Mars latour and Lott-St. Privat in Glaveau. By mid-August, the deployment of the French main force had been divided by Pu Jun. The Rhine Army in the left-wing middle road led by Marshal Bazin of the French army * * *170,000 people was besieged in the strategically important Metz fortress; The other one, led by Marshal Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte and McMahon, consisted of 65,438 men and 200,000 right-wing troops, and was incorporated into the Xia Long Legion, with McMahon as the commander in Xia Long. On August 30th, the French army retreated to the place where greed and Pu Jun fought fiercely in Beaumont. Immediately, Mao Qi ordered Pu Jun to move to both sides of Xia Long Legion. On August 30th, 3 1 year, Mr. Yu Yedun, the general manager of the company, practiced the practice of returning to the gap.
In September 65438 +0 to 2, Franco-Prussian fought the decisive battle of this war-Sedang Campaign. On the morning of September 1 Sunday, the Third Army Corps of Pujun occupied places such as Furiji and Donchery, cut off the railway that the French army retreated from Sedan via Meiji Elsee, and then inserted it into the area of San Munro and Frenie behind the French army, blocking the way for the French army to retreat to Belgium. At noon that day, Pu Jun completed the camp of Xia Long Army Corps and began to carry out heavy shelling. In the afternoon, the French army failed to break through several times. Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte knew that he could not recover the defeat and ordered a white flag to be hoisted at 4: 30 in the afternoon. On September 2nd, the French Emperor Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte led 83,000 soldiers to surrender to Pu Jun. In this war, the French army lost 124000 people, of which only 3000 people fled to Belgium; Pu Jun lost nearly 9,000 people. Sedan's fiasco accelerated the collapse of the Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte Empire. On September 4th, France announced the establishment of the Republic of * * *, and formed a bourgeois * * * and factional government headed by General Troxus, and a "national defense government" came to power.
The obstacles to German national reunification have been removed, and the southern German states were successfully merged into the North German Federation in June 1870+065438+ 10. However, the Prussian authorities did not stop military operations because of this. In mid-September, Pu Jun marched into Paris and surrounded it. At this point, the Prussian war no longer has the original defensive nature, but has become an aggressive predatory war. In this way, the Franco-Prussian War entered the second stage and has been transformed into a progressive national liberation war in France. At this stage, in addition to the newly-built Northern Corps and Loire Corps, France fought Pu Jun on the battlefield, and the broad masses of people (free shooters) launched guerrilla warfare. At this time, there were still about 6,543,800 people in France who resisted. However, due to the surrender policy of the French bourgeois government, it attempted to collude with the enemy and prevent the resistance movement from continuing to develop. On September 23rd, Pu Jun occupied Thule, and on the 27th, the defenders of Strasbourg surrendered.
10/On October 27th, Marshal Bazin led170,000 French troops to surrender in Metz. This enabled Pu Jun to free up two army groups to put pressure on the Loire River and the Union Army, so that the two army groups were defeated in the battle with the superior Pu Jun. During this period, the French government made peace with Pu Jun twice; Because of hunger and poverty, Paris residents opposed the government's surrender policy and held many uprisings.
187165438+1On October 22nd, after the French government suppressed the uprising of Paris residents, it held final negotiations with castle wolfenstein, and on October 28th, 65438+1signed the Treaty of Surrender in Paris, and a three-week armistice agreement was signed in Pu Jun, Versailles. On February 26th, the Treaty of Versailles was initialled. After the conclusion of the peace treaty, the bourgeois government colluded with national enemies to attack Paris workers, and the Paris Commune uprising broke out. On March 18, the people's uprising in Paris was successful and the Paris Commune was proclaimed. 1871May 10 On the day before the failure of the Paris Commune, French Foreign Minister Jules Fabry and German Reich Prime Minister Bismarck signed a formal peace treaty in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. The Franco-Prussian War officially ended.
The Franco-Prussian War ended with the collapse of the Second Empire of France and the surrender of the French bourgeois government. According to the provisions of the peace treaty, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany and paid 5 billion francs in compensation. 187 1 year 1 month 18, King William I of Prussia announced the establishment of the German Empire at Versailles and became emperor himself. At this point, the reunification of Germany was finally completed. After the Franco-Prussian War, the European continent became more turbulent due to the further intensification of the contradiction between Germany and France. The feud between the two countries in this war became one of the main factors that later triggered the First World War.
During the Franco-Prussian War, Engels pointed out in a series of brief comments on the war that there were three basic mistakes that led to the disastrous defeat of Sedang: "First, the position of the French army in the attack against the enemy enabled the victorious German army to break into the French army's scattered troops, and as a result, the French army was divided into two independent troops, and they could not meet each other or even cooperate with each other; Second, bazan army hesitated in Metz, and the result was tightly besieged there; Third, the troops used to rescue the Bazin Corps and the route they took were only inciting the enemy to seize all reinforcements. " The French army made three basic mistakes, both because of the wrong guidance of the Paris government and the command error of the top commander at the front. Pu Jun's chief of staff, Mao Qi, was good at making and using the mistakes of the French army, skillfully exerting his own strategy and implementing correct, firm and flexible operational command, which enabled Pu Jun to take the initiative at the beginning of the war.