Modern opinions, which are contrary to the medieval opinions, originated in Italy with the movement called "Renaissance". Initially,
only a few people, mainly Petrarch, held this view; but during the fifteenth century, the modern view became widespread
to the point where both religious and secular circles in Italy were completely different. Most educated people. In some respects, the Italians of the Renaissance, with the exception of Leonardo and a few others, did not respect science - respect for science which was the most important thing since the seventeenth century< /p>
It is necessary to innovate the characteristics of the characters; because of this deficiency, their liberation from superstition, especially from astrology, is very incomplete.
Many of them still revere authority like the medieval philosophers, but they replace the authority of the church with the authority of ancient people. This is naturally a step forward towards liberation, because ancient people had different views on each other, and deciding which one to believe in required personal judgment. But probably few Italians in the fifteenth century dared to hold opinions that had no basis in antiquity or in church teachings.
In order to understand the Renaissance movement, it is necessary to briefly review the political situation in Italy. From the death of Friedrich II in 1250 until King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in 1494, Italy was generally free of foreign interference. There are five important city-states in Italy: Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples. In addition to these city-states, there are many small principalities, each of which forms an alliance with one of the big states, or is affiliated with a certain big state.
Before 1378, Genoa had been competing with Venice in terms of trade and naval power, but since that year, Genoa fell under the suzerainty of Milan. .
Milan took the lead in resisting the feudal system in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. After the Hohenstaufen dynasty finally failed, it came under the rule of the Visconti family - this is A capable family's power is not a feudal political power, but a plutocracy
political power. The Visconti family ruled Milan for 170 years from 1277 to 1447. Then the government and the political system were restored for another three years, and then a new family, the Sforza family, which was related to the Visconti family, gained power and named themselves Duke of Milan. From 14
1494 to 1535, Milan was a battlefield between the French and the Spanish; the Sforza family sometimes allied with one side,
sometimes with the other. During this period, they sometimes lived in exile and sometimes held power in name only. Finally
In 1535, Milan was annexed by Emperor Charles V.
The Republic of Venice was somewhat on the outside of Italian politics, especially in the early hundreds of years when the country was at its peak.
Venice had never been conquered by barbarians, and initially it regarded itself as a vassal of the Eastern Roman emperor. Due to this tradition,
and the fact that Venice's trade was with the East, it was able to be independent from Roman control; this situation continued until the Synod of Toulon (1545) The times live on - about the Council of Toulon, the Venetian Paolo Sarpi
wrote a very anti-papal history. I have mentioned before how Venice insisted on taking Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.
This incident promoted Venetian trade; in turn, the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 damaged its trade. For various reasons, somewhat related to food supply problems, the Venetians felt the need to acquire large territories in mainland Italy during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This aroused hatred on all sides, and finally led to the conclusion of the League of Cambrai in 1509
A coalition of powerful states, by which Venice was defeated.
Recovering from this misfortune may still be possible; but what is irreversible is Vasco da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope (1497 —1498). This discovery, combined with the power of the Turks, destroyed Venice;
However, it always maintained its independence until Napoleon deprived it of its independence.
Venice's political system was originally democratic, but gradually became undemocratic, and after 1297 it became an exclusive oligarchy
Politics. The basis of political power is the "Great Council". Since that year, the members of the Great Council have been hereditary and limited to prominent families.
Executive power belongs to the "Council of Ten", ten of whom are elected by the Grand Council. The official head of state, "Doge", is elected for life; the nominal authority of the Doge is very limited, but in fact his power is usually decisive. Venetian diplomacy
is known to be extremely cunning, and the reports of the Venetian ambassadors are surprisingly insightful. From Ranke onwards, historians have used such reports as their best source of information about the events they study.
Florence was the most civilized city in the world at that time, and it was the main birthplace of the Renaissance. Almost all the great names in Renaissance literature, as well as the names of early and even late masters in Renaissance art, are all related to Florence. Together; but for now we don’t care about culture and let’s talk about politics. In the thirteenth century, there were three competing classes in Florence: the nobility, the wealthy merchants and the common people. Most of the nobles are the emperor's party, and the other two classes are the papal party. The emperor's party was finally defeated in 1266, and in the fourteenth century the plebeians once again gained the upper hand over the wealthy merchants. However, the struggle did not bring stable democratic politics, but promoted the gradual rise of a kind of "tyranny" as the Greeks called it. The Medici finally became the rulers of Florence, and they started out as political brokers for the democrats. The first person in this family to achieve a clear superior status - Cozimo de' Medici (1389-1464), did not have any official position; his power
< p>The power relies on the clever art of manipulating elections. He is insidious and cunning, he may be lenient and sometimes merciful, but he can be ruthless when necessary.After a short period of time after his death, his grandson Lorenzo, Duke Albert, succeeded him and took charge of power from 1469 to his death in 1492.
Both men relied on financial resources to achieve their status. Their wealth came mainly from business, but also from mining and other industries. They not only knew how to get rich themselves, but also knew how to make Florence rich, so under the governance of these two people, the city of Florence prospered.
Lorenzo's son Pietro lacked his father's strengths and was expelled in 1494. Then followed the four years of Savannahola's rise to power. During this period, there was a revival of Puritanism, which turned people against pleasure and luxury, away from free thought, and towards
The simpler times of the past must have always been characterized by piety. However, in the end, mainly for political reasons, Savannarolla's enemies were victorious and he was executed and his body burned (1498). The purpose of this peaceful country was to promote democracy, but in reality it was a plutocracy. It lasted until 1512, when the Medici were restored. Lorenzo had a son who became a cardinal at the age of fourteen. He was elected pope in 1513, named Leo X.
The Medici ruled Florence with the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany until 1737;
But during this period Florence was like the rest of Italy , became poor and weak.
The secular powers of the Pope, which had their origin in the unjust and counterfeit Gift of Constantine, were greatly expanded during the Renaissance; but
were those adopted by the Popes for this purpose method, but destroyed the religious prestige of the papacy. The synod movement, which failed in the battle between the Synod of Bazer and Pope Eugenius IV (1431-1447), represented the most fervent zeal in the church. elements; perhaps more importantly, this movement represented the views of the Church north of the Alps. The victory of the Pope
That is, the victory of Italy, and (worse) the victory of Spain. In the second half of the fifteenth century, the Italian civilization was completely different from the civilizations of the northern countries, which still maintained a medieval flavor.
Italian people are serious about culture, but they are not serious about morality and religion; even in the minds of priests
elegant Latin will always cover up many sins.
The first pope who advocated humanism, Nicholas V (1447-1455), assigned various positions in the Holy See to some scholars just because he respected them. Human learning, regardless of other considerations; Lorenzo Valla
—an Epicurean and the one who proved that the "Gift of Constantine" was a forgery , who ridiculed the writing style of the Latin Universal Bible and accused St. Augustine of being a heretic, was appointed secretary to the Pope. This policy of rewarding humanism
more than piety or orthodox belief continued until the sack of Rome in 1527.
Rewarding humanism is certainly indignant to zealous northerners, and may be considered a merit from our point of view;
But the militaristic policies and morally corrupt lives of some popes , except from the point of view of naked power politics, it cannot be defended from any point of view. In his personal papal life, Alexander VI (1492-1503) focused on expanding the power of himself and his family. He had two sons: Duke Gandia and Caesar Borgia (Caesar Borg
ia), and he was very partial to the former. However, Duke Gandia was killed, probably by his younger brother. So the pope's royal ambition had to be poured into Caesar. Together they conquered Romagna and Encona, which were expected to be duchies for Caesar. But when the pope died, Caesar was seriously ill and could not act immediately.
Their conquests resulted in their re-incorporation into the hereditary property of St. Peter. The evil deeds of these two people soon became a rumor, and countless murders were blamed on them. It is difficult to distinguish whether they are true or false. However, there is no doubt that they have pursued unfaithful tactics to an unprecedented extent.
There is no doubt about this. Julius II (1503-1513), who succeeded Alexander VI, was not unusually pious, but he left less scandalous excuses than his predecessor. He continued to expand the papal territory; as a soldier, he had advantages, but as a Christian leader, he was not advisable. The religious reform movement that began under his successor Leo X (1513-1521) was a natural consequence of the secular policies of the Renaissance popes.
The southern tip of Italy is owned by the Kingdom of Naples. For most of the time, Sicily and Naples were united. Naples and Sicily were originally the special private kingdom of Emperor Frederick II; he created an Islamic monarchy, enlightened but autocratic , not giving any power to the feudal nobles. After Friedrich's death in 1250, Naples and Sicily belonged to his illegitimate son Manfried. However, Manfried also inherited the church's grievances and was excommunicated in 1266
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The French were expelled. The French became unpopular and were massacred at the Sicilian Vespers (1282); after that the kingdom belonged to Peter III of Aragon and his successors. After various complicated disputes,
Naples and Sicily were temporarily divided, and then reunited in 1443 under the famous civil rewarder King Alphonso.
From 1495 onwards, three French kings tried to conquer Naples, but the kingdom was finally captured by Ferdinand of Aragon (1502). Charles VIII, Louis XII and Francis I, these French kings all insisted on their right to govern Milan and Naples (which has little legal basis); they all invaded Italy
Italy was temporarily successful, but in the end they were all defeated by the Spaniards. The Spanish victories and the Counter-Reformation ended the Italian Renaissance.
Pope Clement VII was an obstacle to the Counter-Reformation, and he was a Medici and an ally of France. Therefore, in 1527, Charles V allowed most of the army to An army of Protestants sacked Rome. From then on, the popes turned to piety, and the Italian Renaissance came to an end.
The power politics being played out in Italy are incredibly complex. Most of the small country lords are self-made overlords. Sometimes they are in alliance with one or another of the big countries. If they don't play well, they will be wiped out. Wars
wars continued, but until the arrival of the French in 1494, the battles fought were almost bloodless: the soldiers were mercenaries, and they could not reduce the dangers of their profession to Minimum.
This purely Italian war did not cause much harm to trade, nor did it prevent Italy from increasing its wealth. There are endless strategies for governing the country, and there is no wise political talent; when the French arrived, the country was simply defenseless.
The French army actually killed people during the battle, which frightened the Italians. The subsequent wars between the French and the Spanish
were all serious wars, bringing misery and poverty. However, the Italian city-states did not care about national unity. They continued to plot against each other and sought help from France or Spain during the civil strife. In the end, they all perished together.
Because of the discovery of America and the route to the East via the Cape of Good Hope, Italy will inevitably lose its important position. This is natural
but this collapse can at least be less harmful. , less destructive to the quality of Italian civilization.
The Renaissance was not a period of great achievements in philosophy, but it also made some things that were necessary preparations for the great seventeenth century.
First, the Renaissance movement destroyed the rigid scholastic system, which had become an intellectual fetter. The study of Plato was resumed, therefore requiring people to at least have the independent thinking necessary to choose between Plato and Aristotle.
The Renaissance promoted people's direct and true understanding of these two men, breaking away from the commentaries of Neoplatonists and Arabic commentators.
More importantly, the Renaissance encouraged the habit of viewing intellectual activities as fun and social activities, rather than as secluded meditation aimed at preserving a predetermined orthodoxy.
Contact with Byzantine learning led Plato to replace Aristotle in the scholastic interpretation early. As early as the Council of Ferrara (1438), which nominally reunited the Eastern and Western churches, there was a debate in which Byzantium People maintain that Plato is superior to Aristotle.
Gemistus Pletho was a Greek
a passionate Platonist whose orthodoxy was very problematic. He made a great contribution to the revitalization of Platonic philosophy in Italy
and Bessarion, a Greek who became a cardinal. Cozimo de Medici
Dici and Lorenzo de Medici were both fascinated by Plato; Cozimo founded Florens, which was extensively engaged in Plato studies
Lens Lorenzo continued to establish the academy. Cozimo died listening to one of Plato's dialogues. However, the humanists of that time were too busy acquiring ancient knowledge to produce anything original in philosophy.
The Renaissance was not a popular movement; it was a movement of a few scholars and artists, who received generous literary and artistic rewards
especially those of the Medici and the popes who advocated humanism. of sponsorship. If it had not had these rewarders, its success might have been much less. Petrarch and Boccaccio in the fourteenth century belonged to the Renaissance era spiritually.
However, due to different political conditions at the time, their direct influence was not as good as that of the humanists of the fifteenth century.
It is difficult to simply describe the attitude of Renaissance scholars toward the church. Some people are outspoken free thinkers, but even such people are usually under the command of the "final disciple" to reconcile with the church when they feel that death is imminent. Most scholars
suffered from the sins of the pope at that time, but they were still happy to be appointed by the pope. The historian Guicciardini wrote in 1529: "No one hates the ambition, greed and debauchery of the priests more than I do; Not only because each of these vices is hateful in its own right, but because each one of them is totally unbecoming of someone who claims to have a special relationship with God, but also because Vices are so contrary to each other that they can only exist in people of very eccentric natures. Nevertheless, my position in the papal curia has forced me to act only for my own benefit. I hope they will be great. But if it were not for this reason, I would already love Martin Luther as much as myself; this is not because I personally want to get rid of the general understanding.
The purpose of the precepts imposed on people by Christianity and their interpretation is to see these scoundrels being escorted back to their own place, so that they
have to live a life without sin or authority."
This is refreshingly frank, and clearly illustrates the reason why humanists cannot initiate religious innovation. Moreover,
most of them see no compromise between orthodoxy and free thought; they no longer possess
the medieval sensibility for theological subtleties, so A position like Luther's was impossible for them. Ma Zuqiu finished speaking
about the evil deeds of monks, nuns and monks, and said:
"The best punishment for them is probably to let God cancel purgatory; in this way They would no longer receive alms,
and would have to live a life of hoes again."
But he did not think of denying purgatory while retaining the great power like Luther. Part of Catholicism.
The wealth of Rome was only partly derived from the annual income from the papal lands, but mainly collected from the entire Catholic world through a theological system that held that the pope held the key to the kingdom of heaven.
of donations. If any Italian expresses dissent to this system and achieves effective results, it is difficult to guarantee that Italy will not become impoverished and lose its status in the Western world. Therefore, the heresies in Italy during the Renaissance were purely spiritual heresies. They did not cause a schism in the church, nor did they trigger any popular movement to break away from the church. The only exception, and it is a very incomplete exception, is Savain, which is spiritually medieval.
Narola.
Most humanists retain those superstitions that were upheld in antiquity. Magic and witchcraft may be evil,
but I don't think this is impossible. Innocent VIII issued an anti-witchcraft edict in 1484, which resulted in a shocking persecution of witches in Germany and elsewhere. Astrology is particularly valued by free thinkers, and has reached a level of popularity unprecedented in ancient times. The initial result of liberation from the church was not to make people think rationally, but to open their minds to all the absurdities of ancient times.
Morally, the initial consequences of emancipation were equally tragic. The old moral laws are no longer respected; most of the city-state leaders gained their status through betrayal and betrayal, and maintained their rule through ruthless cruelty. When the cardinals were invited to the Emperor's coronation banquet, they brought their own wine and bartenders for fear of poisoning them. With the exception of Savannallola, it was rare that an Italian in this period risked any sacrifice for the public good. The scourge of papal corruption was seen, but nothing could be done about it. The benefits of Italy's unification are obvious, but the princes will not unite.
The danger of alien rule was at hand, and yet every Italian prince was willing to beg for help from any foreign power in any dispute with any other Italian prince.
Even begging the Turks. Apart from the destruction of ancient manuscripts, I can't think of one crime that was not commonly committed by Renaissance people.
Beyond the scope of morality, the Renaissance had great achievements. In terms of architecture, painting and poetry, it has always maintained a good reputation. The Renaissance movement produced great figures such as Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Machiavelli.
This movement liberated educated people from the intolerance of medieval culture. Even if it was still a slave to ancient worship,
it always let scholars know that on almost all issues Various opinions have been advocated by reputable authorities.
The Renaissance, by resurrecting the knowledge of the Hellenistic age, created a spiritual atmosphere in which it was once again possible to rival the achievements of the Greeks, and where individual genius could Thrive in conditions of freedom that have been extinct since the days of Alexander
. The political conditions of the Renaissance were favorable to personal development, but unstable; and, as in ancient Greece, instability and expression of personality were closely linked. A stable social system is necessary, but everything Qi Jin has come up with to stabilize the system hinders the development of special values ??in art or intelligence. How much murder and mayhem are we prepared to endure to achieve the kind of greatness that the Renaissance achieved? In the past, a lot was willing to endure; in modern times, much less. Although
with the expansion of social organizations, this problem is becoming more and more urgent, and a solution has not been found to this day.