The Philosophy of Art Danner (France)
Part 1 The Essence and Production of Artworks
Gentlemen
I begin When I give lectures, I first make two requests to you. The first is to pay attention, and the second is your kindness: these are what I desperately need. The kindness with which you received me convinced me that you would certainly agree to my request. I offer you my warm and sincere thanks in advance for this.
The topic I plan to teach this year is art history, mainly the history of Italian painting. Before entering the main text, I would like to explain the method and purpose of my lecture.
Chapter 1 The Essence of Artworks
1
The starting point of my method is to determine that a work of art is not isolated; to which it belongs and which explains the totality of the work of art.
The first step is easy. A work of art, whether it is a painting, a tragedy, or a statue, obviously belongs to a whole, that is to say, to the entire oeuvre of its author. This is simple. Everyone knows that many different works of an artist are related, just like several daughters born to the same father, who have obvious similarities with each other. You also know that every artist has his own style, which can be seen in all his works. If he is a painter, he has his own tones, which may be bright or dark; he has his favorite models, which may be noble or popular; he has his posture, his composition, his production method, and the thickness of the oil he uses. His realistic way, his colors, his technique. If he is a writer, he has his characters, which may be fierce or peaceful; he has his plot, which may be complex or simple; he has his ending, which may be tragic or comic; he has his style effect, his syntax, his Vocabulary. This is absolutely true. As long as you show an unsigned work by a very good artist to an expert, he will almost certainly be able to tell the author; if he is very experienced and has a very sensitive sense, he can also tell the author. Which period of that writer does the work belong to, and which stage of the writer's development does the work belong to.
This is the first totality to which a work of art belongs. Let’s talk about the second one.
The artist himself, together with all the works he produces, is not isolated. There is a group that includes artists, which is broader than the artist, and is the art sect or artist family that he belongs to at the same time and in the same place. For example, Shakespeare, at first glance, seems to be a miracle falling from the sky, a meteorite from another planet, but around him, we find a dozen outstanding playwrights, such as Webster, Ford, Mars, Marlowe, Ben Johnson, Fletcher, and Bomond all wrote in the same style and with the same thoughts and feelings. The characteristics of their plays are the same as those of Shakespeare; you find the same violent and terrifying characters, the same murderous and bizarre endings, the same sudden and unbridled passions, the same chaotic, strange, excessive and brilliant style, the same With a strong poetic feeling for the fields and scenery, he also writes about women who are generally sensitive and deeply in love. ——As far as painters are concerned, Rubens seems to be a unique figure, with no master before him and no successor after him. But as long as you go to Belgium and visit the churches in Ghent, Brussels, Bruges, and Anvers, you will find that there are a whole group of painters with talents similar to Rubens: first, Kreier, who was also famous as him at the time, and There are Adam van Nolde, Gerald Ziggs, Lombus, Abraham Janssens, Van Roth, van Tirden, Johann van Austen, and the familiar Jorden. Thomas and Van Dyck all use the same thoughts and feelings to understand painting, and they always maintain the appearance of the same family despite their unique differences. Like Rubens, they like to express the strong human body, the fullness and trembling of life, the abundant blood, the sensitive feeling, the fully exposed soft flesh of the human body, realistic, often rough characters, and lively and unrestrained movements. , embroidered flowers, gleaming fabrics, reflections of satin and red cloth, floating or wrinkled curtains. Today, the honor of the great master of their time seems to have obscured them; but to understand that master, it is still necessary to gather these talented writers around him, because he is only the highest branch among them, just this The most prominent representative of an artistic family.
This is the second step. Now comes the third step. This artistic family is itself included in a larger whole, that is, the society that surrounds it and whose tastes coincide with its own. Because the customs and the spirit of the times are the same for the masses and for artists; artists are not isolated people. Centuries separate us from the fact that we hear only the voices of the artists; but beneath the loud sounds that reach our ears we can discern the complex and endless song of the crowd, like a vast low hum, A chorus of voices echoed around the artist. It is only because of this harmony that the artist becomes great. And this is inevitable: Phidias, Ictinus, who built the Parthenon and shaped Cupid at Olympia, were pagans and free citizens like the rest of the Athenians. They were raised in the gym, participated in fights, participated in sports naked, and were used to debating and voting in the square; they all had the same habits, the same interests, the same beliefs, the same race, the same education, and the same language. So in all important aspects of life, the artist and the audience are exactly alike.
This consistent situation is even more obvious if we examine an era closer to us, such as the flourishing age of Spain, which lasted from the 16th century to the middle of the 17th century. It was the era of great painters, including Verasquez, Murillo, Zurbarán, Francis Valle de Herrera, Alonso Cano, and Moralance; they were also great poets. In that era, outstanding talents include Loper Te Fanga, Catron, Cervantes, Tezso Te Molina, Don Louis Treon, Chilam Te Castro. , and many others. You know, at that time, Spain was purely a monarchy and a country that believed in the old religion. In Laibunde, it defeated the Turks, set out to establish colonies in Africa, suppressed the Germanic Protestants, and went to France to pursue them, and to Britain to attack and subdue them. The idol-worshiping Native Americans were forced to convert; they drove away the Jews and Moors in Spain; they used fire and persecution to eliminate domestic religious heretics; they abused warships and troops and squandered the gold and silver plundered from the Americas. The blood of the best sons, the blood that is vital to the lifeblood of the country, was consumed in militarism and crusades again and again; that kind of stubbornness, that kind of evil spirit, caused Spain to be destitute and poor, and fell to Europe a century and a half later. feet. But that enthusiasm, that unparalleled prestige, that national enthusiasm made the Spanish subjects obsessed with the monarchy, concentrated their energy on it, obsessed with the cause of the country, and dedicated themselves to it: they were single-minded. Use obedience to promote religion and royal power, and only want to unite believers, warriors, and worshipers around the church and the throne. The judges of the Inquisition and the soldiers of the Crusaders all retained the medieval knightly ideas, mysterious atmosphere, gloomy and fierce temper, cruel and intolerant character. In such a monarchy, the greatest artist is the person who has reached the highest level with the talents, consciousness and emotions of the masses. The most famous poets, Loper Tevanga and Catron, served as soldiers in the rivers and lakes, volunteers of the "Dreadnought Fleet", liked duels and falling in love; their concepts of magic and mystery in love were no less than those of the poets of the feudal era. And Don Quixote first-class characters. They believed in the old religion so much that one of them even joined the Inquisition in his later years, and several others also became priests; the most famous one, the great poet Lopo, thought of the suffering and sacrifice of Jesus during mass and fainted. fall. Examples like this can be found everywhere, showing that artists and the masses are closely connected and consistent. Therefore, we can say with certainty: To understand the taste and talent of an artist, to understand why he chooses a certain department in painting or drama, why he particularly likes certain typical colors and expresses certain emotions, we should understand the thoughts of the masses. Explore emotions and customs.
From this we can set a rule: to understand a work of art, an artist, or a group of artists, one must correctly envision the spirit and customs of the era to which they belong. This is the final explanation of the artwork and the fundamental reason that determines everything. This has been confirmed by experience; just look at various important eras in the history of art, and you can see that a certain kind of art appears and disappears at the same time as certain zeitgeist and customs. ——For example, Greek tragedy: The era when the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were born was the era when the Greeks defeated the Persians, and the era when small armies and city-states were engaged in heroic struggles. , an era in which China fought for independence with great efforts and achieved a leadership position in the civilized world. When the depression of the people and the Macedonian invasion brought Greece under foreign rule and the national independence and vitality were lost together, the tragedy also disappeared. —Similarly, Gothic architecture developed during the period when feudalism was formally established, just as society began to stabilize from the harassment of the Normans and bandits at the dawn of the eleventh century. By the end of the fifteenth century, when the modern monarchy was born and the system of independent small princes and all the customs related to it tended to collapse, Gothic architecture also disappeared. ——Similarly, the rise of Dutch painting coincided with the time when the Netherlands relied on tenacity and courage to overthrow Spanish rule, fought an evenly matched battle with Britain, and became the richest, freest, most prosperous, and most developed country in Europe. When Dutch painting declined in the early 18th century, it was the Netherlands that was declining, allowing Britain to take the lead. The country was reduced to a well-organized and well-managed business houses and banks, and the people lived a well-off life that was law-abiding. No matter how ambitious we are, there is no longer an era of exciting emotions. ——Similarly, the emergence of French tragedy happened to be the time when the formal monarchy established rules and etiquette under the rule of Louis XIV, promoted court life, and paid attention to beautiful appearance and elegant living habits. The eradication of French tragedy coincided with the era when aristocratic society and court ethos were swept away by the Great Revolution.
I want to make a comparison to make the role of customs and the spirit of the times on art more obvious. Suppose you start from the south to the north, you can find that when you enter a certain area, there is some kind of special planting, special plants. First the aloe and the orange tree, then the olive tree or grapevine, then the oak tree and oats, then the pine tree, and finally the moss. Each region has its own special crops and vegetation, which begin and end together with the region; plants are connected to the region. Region is the condition for the existence of certain crops and grasses. The existence or absence of region determines the appearance or non-appearance of certain plants.
The so-called region is nothing more than a certain temperature, humidity, and certain main situations, which is equivalent to what we call the spirit of the times and customs on the other hand. The natural world has its climate, and climate changes determine the emergence of this and that kind of plants; the spiritual aspect also has its climate, and its changes determine the emergence of this and that kind of art. Just as we study the natural climate in order to understand the emergence of a certain plant, corn or oats, aloe or pine, so we should study the spiritual climate in order to understand the emergence of a certain art, pagan sculpture or realistic painting. , mysterious architecture or classical literature, soft music or idealistic poetry. The products of spiritual civilization, like those of the animal and plant kingdoms, can only be explained by their respective environments.
This year I plan to use this method to study the history of Italian painting with you. I am going to reorganize and show you the mysterious environment that gave rise to Jodo and Bedo Angelique. To this end, I am going to quote materials from poets and writers to let you see how people at that time viewed happiness, disaster, and love. , faith, heaven, hell, all major interests in life, what concepts do you hold? The sources of these materials include the poems of Dante, Chito Cavaganti and the Franciscan monks, including "The Acts of the Saints", "The Imitation of Christ", "The Little Flower of St. Francis", and Tino... The works of historians such as Gongbani include the chronicles of various families collected by Muladore. This big book naively describes the jealous and murderous deeds of various small countries and states. ——Then I will reorganize for you the pagan environment that produced Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and the Iron Phase society a century and a half later. I may quote from the memoirs of people at the time, such as the Autobiography of Befannudo Cerini, or from diaries written by certain historians in Rome and other important Italian cities, or from reports from diplomatic envoys, or from reports about celebrations. , descriptions of mask parades, city entrances, etc., and extract important passages from them, so that you can see the roughness of social customs, indulgent sensuality, and abundant vitality. At the same time, you can also see the strong feelings and hobbies of people at that time for poetry and literature. The dazzling image, the instinct for decoration, the emphasis on external splendor; these tendencies exist among nobles and men of letters, and among common people and the ignorant masses.
Gentlemen, assuming that our research can be successful and we can clearly point out the various spirits of the times that contributed to the birth, development, prosperity, change, and decline of Italian painting, suppose that we can provide some insights into other Our study of architecture, painting, sculpture, poetry, and music can be successful in other eras, other countries, and other arts. Suppose that, thanks to these discoveries, we can determine the nature of each art and point out the reasons for its survival. Condition: Then we can have a perfect explanation not only for art, but also for art in general, that is to say, we can have a philosophy about art, which is the so-called "aesthetics". Gentlemen, it is this aesthetic that we seek, not another. Our aesthetics is modern. The difference from the old aesthetics is that it starts from history rather than from doctrine. It does not propose a set of rules for people to accept, but only proves some laws. In the past, aesthetics first defined beauty. For example, beauty was the expression of moral ideals, or beauty was the expression of abstraction, or beauty was the expression of strong emotions. Then, according to the definition, attitudes were expressed as in accordance with the provisions of the code: Either tolerance, criticism, warning, or guidance. I am glad that I am not required to undertake such an onerous task; I have nothing to guide you, and it would be difficult for me to do so. And I think privately that there are only two so-called lessons in the final analysis: the first is to advise people to have talent; this is your parents’ business and has nothing to do with me; the second is to advise people to study hard and master skills; this is Your own affairs have nothing to do with me. My only responsibility is to lay out the facts and show how they came to be. I would like to apply the modern method that has begun to be adopted by all spiritual sciences, which is simply to regard human enterprises, especially works of art, as facts and products, to point out their characteristics and to explore their causes. Science holds this view, neither prohibiting anything nor condoning anything, it only tests and explains. Science does not tell you: "Dutch art is too vulgar and should not be taken seriously; only Italian art should be appreciated." Nor does science tell you: "Gothic art is pathological and should not be taken seriously; you should only appreciate Greek art." Science lets you Everyone likes things that suit his temperament according to his own preferences, and he pays special attention to things that are most compatible with his spirit. Science sympathizes with various art forms and various art schools, treats completely opposite forms and schools equally, and regards them as different manifestations of the human spirit. It believes that the more forms and schools are opposite, the more the human spirit will be expressed. The more novel it is. Botany studies now oranges and palm trees, now pine and birch trees, with the same interest; so does aesthetics, which itself is a practical botany, but not with plants, but with the works of men. Therefore, aesthetics follows the current trend of increasing proximity between spiritual science and natural science. If spiritual science adopts the principles, direction and rigorous attitude of natural science, it can have the same solid foundation and the same progress.
2. The first and main problem in aesthetics is the definition of art. What is art? What is the essence? I want to apply my method to this problem immediately. ——I will not propose any formulas, I will only expose you to the facts.
Here, as elsewhere, there are many definite facts to be observed about the "works of art" arranged according to faction in the gallery, like the plants in the herbarium and the animals in the museum. We can analyze both works of art and animals and plants; we can explore the general situation of animals and plants, and we can also explore the general situation of works of art. The study of the latter, like the study of the former, does not need to go beyond our experience; the whole work is only to use many methods of comparison and gradual elimination to reveal the ultimate similarities of all works of art, and at the same time reveal the significant differences between works of art and other products of mankind. point.
Among the five major arts: poetry, sculpture, painting, architecture, and music, the latter two are more difficult to explain and will be discussed later; now we will examine the first three. You have all seen that these three types of art have the same characteristic, which is that they are more or less "imitation" art.
At first glance, it seems that this characteristic is the essence of the three arts, and their purpose is to imitate as accurately as possible. Obviously, the purpose of a statue is to realistically imitate a living person, and the purpose of a painting is to depict real characters and real postures, and to describe indoor scenes or outdoor scenery according to the images provided by reality. It is also clear that a play or a novel attempts to accurately represent some real characters, actions, and words, so as to give people the clearest and most faithful image possible. If the image expression is insufficient or incorrect, we will say to the sculptor: "A breast or a leg is not shaped like this." We will say to the painter: "The figures in your second scene are too big, and the tone of the trees is not right." "True." We would say to writers: "A person's feelings and thoughts are never what you assume."
But there is more powerful evidence, first of all, daily experience. Just look at the life of an artist and you will find that it is usually divided into two parts. The first part is youth and maturity: the artist pays attention to things, studies them carefully and enthusiastically, and puts things before his eyes; he puts all his efforts into expressing things, and his faithfulness is not only extreme, but even excessive. At a certain period of life, the artist feels that he has learned enough about things and has nothing new to discover, so he leaves living models and relies on the know-how gleaned from experience to write plays, novels, paintings, and sculptures. The first period is a period of true feelings; the second period is a period of conformity and decline. He is the most amazing writer, and he has these two parts in almost his life. ——Michelangelo's first phase was very long, no less than sixty years; all the works in that phase were full of forceful feeling and heroic spirit. The artist is completely immersed in these emotions and has no other thoughts. The many anatomy he did, the countless sketches he drew, the inner analysis he often conducted on himself, and the study of tragic emotions and expressions reflected on the body were just means to him. The purpose was to express the courage he loved. The power of struggle. This is the impression that the entire ceiling and every corner of the Sixteenth Cathedral [worked between the ages of thirty-three and thirty-seven] gives you. Then you may wish to walk into the adjacent Paulina Church and examine his works in his later years (between the ages of sixty-seven and seventy-five): "The Conversion of St. Paul" and "The Crucifixion of St. Peter"; you may also wish to read Look at the mural he painted in the Xixiting when he was sixty-seven: "The Last Judgment".
Not only experts, but also laymen will notice: those two murals were painted according to a certain formula; the artist has mastered a considerable number of forms, and uses them based on prejudice, with more and more amazing postures, and more and more distance-shortening perspective techniques. The more ingenious it is; but under the abuse of established methods and the emphasis on technique above all else, the vivid creation, natural expression, and warmth of the early works can no longer be achieved.