Sturm und drang has always been a literary movement because Germany in the18th century did not have the objective social conditions for political revolution and no actual revolutionary movement, and its scope was limited to advanced young intellectuals. Entering the 1980s of 18, this lively movement gradually declined, and German literature entered a new stage of development. 1789 At the same time as the French Revolution, German literature began to transition to the classical literature period. Classical literature pushed the Enlightenment and literary revolution in 1970s to a new stage. Heine said that this is a French revolution carried out by German poets and thinkers ideologically.
In the early days of the French Revolution, almost all German writers, even the schlegel brothers, the leader of the Romantic School, rejoiced. However, when the jacobin Party came to power and used revolutionary violence to safeguard the people's interests, that is, when the revolution entered the bloody stage from the bloodless stage, the political attitude of German writers was obviously divided. A few writers, such as Walster and Soymer, fully supported the revolutionary dictatorship of the jacobin Party and hoped to carry out a French-style revolution in Germany. On the contrary, the romantic writers represented by schlegel Brothers totally denied the French Revolution and embarked on the road of nostalgia. Strictly speaking, the "period of classical literature" mentioned in the book is only 10 year, that is, 1794 Goethe cooperated with Schiller until 1805 Schiller died. Only Goethe and Schiller were present. The other two writers in this period, Holderlin and jean paul, both contributed to German literature, but had little direct relationship with Goethe and Schiller. Therefore, the so-called "classical literature" is neither a large-scale literary movement nor a literary school. However, in this 10 year, Goethe and Schiller completed their brilliant works, which laid the foundation for German literature to occupy an important position in world literature. For example, Schiller's plays wallenstein (1800), The Girl of Orleans (180 1), William Tell (1804) and aesthetic works about simple and sentimental poems (1796). Besides, they also wrote many poems, especially ballads. After Schiller's death, Goethe wrote many brilliant masterpieces in the last 20 years of his life, including Faust (Part II).
From Gottschede to Goethe, the manuscript of Goethe's poetic drama Faust developed along the road opened by the Enlightenment. But by the end of 18, the anti-enlightenment trend of thought appeared in German literature, which was the Romantic Literature Movement. This movement did not appear after classical literature, but developed in parallel with it. August William schlegel came to Jena in 1796, and published the Temple of Athena in Berlin with his brother Friedrich schlegel in 1798, and formed a literary center with them as the core, which was called "early romanticism" or "Jena romanticism" in the history of literature. Besides the schlegel brothers, important writers include Tick, Novalis and Wackenroder. Their basic tendency is to look back on the past, live in seclusion and attach importance to fairy tales and legends.
After 1802, the early romanticism gradually disintegrated. Napoleon's military occupation of Germany made most intellectuals enthusiastic about politics. Early Romantic writers such as Friedrich schlegel and adam miller were openly reactionaries in politics. A group of young romantic writers care about the future of the country and remember the people and national traditions. They formed a new center in Heidelberg, which is called "Late Romanticism" or "Heidelberg Romanticism" in the history of literature. They collect folk songs and explore long-neglected cultural heritage. Brentano and Anim collected and processed the folk song The Boy's Magic Horn (1806 ~ 1808), and Grace edited the German folk story book (1807). The Brothers Grimm, who made the greatest contribution in this respect, not only found many important documents in German literature (such as Song of Hildebrandt), but also compiled and processed the world-famous collection of children's and family fairy tales (1812 ~1815). In terms of creation, the greatest achievement is Eichendorff. Uhlander and Hogg, another branch of "Schwaben Poetry School", are important representatives of this school. However, unlike others, Uhlander is a Democrat.
Hoffman, Kleist and Chamik are generally regarded as romantic writers, but they are not directly related to the above factions. Hoffman is an important novelist. His representative works are Little Shaerx (18 19), Master Flea (1822) and Cousin's Window in the Corner (1822). His works not only criticize the reality, but also yearn for the mythical world. He skillfully combines reality with strangeness and absurdity. He also developed a unique and brisk satirical literature, which had a great influence on German literature in the19th century. Kleist's comedy Broken Urn (1808), novella michael cole Haas (18 10) and Anecdote are all excellent works in German literature, but his thoughts are full of contradictions, which shows that German literature is on the eve of a turning point. As a historical development stage, the generalized Enlightenment represented by Lessing and Goethe is coming to an end, and the era of bourgeois democratic revolution is coming. In this situation, if we really want to grasp social contradictions, we must stand on the standpoint of revolutionary democracy. From this point of view, Chamik is the representative of the transition from romanticism to bourgeois democratic revolutionary literature after 1830, and Heine is a great writer who has completed this transition and reached a new height. Bourgeois democratic revolutionary literature 1832 Goethe's death, Heine thought it was the end of the "art period". Heine's viewpoint not only shows the characteristics of the great development of German literature in the past hundred years, but also correctly divides the stages of historical development. German literature entered a new stage of development around 1830, and the direct cause of this turning point was the July Revolution in France. Under the influence of the July Revolution, the German bourgeois revolution began to make practical preparations, and the bourgeois opposition was unprecedentedly active, especially the petty-bourgeois intellectuals. They use literary creation to directly incite politics. Birna was the most radical and prestigious writer at that time.
In addition to Birna, a loose group of progressive writers named "Young Germany" appeared in the early 1930s. His literary program was announced by Wen Balg, who believed that literature and art depended on social and political life, so it would inevitably have a positive impact on the latter. Young German writers strive to create a kind of social critical literature with drum power. However, because their understanding of society is abstract and their understanding of art is one-sided, they can only make do with the people and things they describe. In the history of literature, this kind of literature is called "inclined literature".
Guchico, Robert and Monte are important writers of "Young Germany". However, neither they nor Birna have made great achievements in creation. In 1930s, the writers who made contributions outside Young Germany were Fisherman, droste Hulshoff and merrick. 1848 The literary revolution in the second half of the year failed, and the bourgeois-democratic revolution suffered serious setbacks. During this period, the tendency of anti-democracy and anti-rationality in literature was obviously enhanced, and non-political tendencies such as avoiding major practical problems and being keen on describing trivial matters and pastoral scenery were very popular. It was not until the 1960s that social critical literature gradually developed, but it did not reach the height of Heine as a whole.
This change in German literature is first manifested in the change of Schopenhauer's influence. Schopenhauer's main works were published before 1848, when few people were interested. 1848 after the failure of the revolution, Schopenhauer suddenly became a fashionable philosopher, and his anti-rational mysticism became the dominant trend of thought. Under the influence of Schopenhauer's thought, a democratic writer and musician who was originally anti-feudal like Wagner also denied life and opposed progress after 1848. H was not a revolutionary before 1848, but after 1848, the tendency of pessimism and irrationalism became more obvious in his works, and even developed into the state power to safeguard the feudal class. After the reunification of Germany in the 1970s, this anti-democratic tendency in German literature developed into moralism literature that openly defended Prussia and chauvinism literature that promoted the German spirit. Gaibel's poems praise Prussia's "achievement" in unifying Germany, while Dagen's Roman War (1876) preaches the reactionary theory that Germans are superior races.
There is another strange phenomenon in German literature in this period, that is, the so-called "great" writers recognized at that time did not achieve much in art. Gaibel was called a "great" poet, but his poems were a poor imitation of classical poetry. Heather's novellas have a large number of readers, and they are all stories that attract the interest of ordinary citizens. Fraitag's novels are all "masterpieces", which are nothing more than stories about how honest people get rich. Driven by these so-called "masterpieces", a large number of vulgar and boring works have appeared.
These tendencies are also reflected in the works of democratic writers who adhere to the humanitarian ideal. They avoid the major problems of the times and fantasize about maintaining their ideals in a narrow scope; They did not face the whole nation, but focused on the local conditions and customs of their hometown; They don't describe the social conflicts in the storm, but appreciate the quiet and harmonious rural life; Unlike Heine, they don't fight the ugly reality with swords and shadows, but show their noble sentiments and morality in this ugly reality with relaxed humor. They also touched on social problems, but their criticism of society was very weak before the 1970s. Rabe's works show his indignation at the darkness, backwardness, corruption and cruelty of German society, but even in his famous trilogy, there is no struggle. There are many beautiful chapters in stoll's poems and novels, and some social problems are also raised, but the impression is that he is lonely and helpless.
Social critical literature was greatly developed in 1970s and 1980s. The appearance of Fontana is the concrete manifestation of this development. The writer finished many novels in a short time. His novels have a broad social background and vivid characters, but the ideological depth and artistic strength of his works cannot be compared with that of the Swiss writer Keller. Switzerland has a rich democratic tradition, and Keller keeps close contact with this democratic tradition, so Keller avoids the limitations of German writers (including Fontana) in his works set in Switzerland. His novella is a masterpiece in German literature, and his novel The Green Henry has every reason to be selected as a world masterpiece.
1Literature at the end of the 9th century and the beginning of the 20th century In the 1980s, the German workers' movement was unprecedentedly high, Marxism was widely spread, the prestige of the Social Democratic Party was greatly increased, and Germany became the center of the international workers' movement. The upsurge of the revolutionary situation has enabled the older generation of bourgeois democratic writers to further see all kinds of social contradictions, thus enhancing the factors of social criticism in their works. Most of Vontana's works are written under this background. However, the revolutionary climax has a more direct impact on literature, which is the rise of the naturalistic literary movement. As is common in German history, when the revolutionary climax comes, the young intellectuals of the petty bourgeoisie are the most revolutionary. They proposed breaking with all traditions, whether progressive or reactionary. Most of the participants in the naturalistic literature movement are young students, who resolutely oppose the capitalist system and think that they stand on the side of workers and support socialism. They want to transform the world, innovate literature and create brand-new "modern literature". 1884 The Character of Modern Poets is the first important work of naturalism. Conrad's magazine Society-Realistic Weekly on Literature, Art and Public Life, which was founded in Munich in 1885, and Breakthrough magazine, which was founded by Berger and Hart brothers in Berlin in 1887, are two centers of the naturalistic literary movement. The theoretical representative of naturalism is Holtz. Hauptmann's Before Sunrise (1889) is a masterpiece of naturalism, while his The Weaver (1892) and The Otter Skin (1893) break away from the principles of naturalism and become important realistic works. In the mid-1990s, the naturalistic literary movement gradually disappeared. Writers who looked revolutionary in those days all left the revolutionary position with the passing of the revolutionary climax, and some even became reactionary. In art, they not only abandoned the ambition of "innovating" the whole literature, but also joined various literary schools at the end of the century. When Germany entered the period of imperialism, various doctrines appeared in literature, such as impressionism, neo-romanticism, neoclassicism, symbolism, aestheticism and so on. Their representative writers are Daimo, Lillian Cologne, Ernst, Georg, Ricarda Huch, Min Xihaosen and Rilke.
These new literary schools (collectively referred to as "decadent schools" by some literary historians) are closely related to Nietzsche's philosophy and aesthetic thoughts. The high development of capitalism fully exposed its internal contradictions, and bourgeois intellectuals were puzzled by such complicated social reality, so Nietzsche's so-called "criticism" of capitalist society became their spiritual guide. In addition, the development of capitalism has also caused the isolation between art and life, artists and the public. Artists who don't want to sell their works as commodities hide in the "ivory tower" and feel that they are incomprehensible "human nature", and Nietzsche's "Superman" philosophy provides a theoretical basis for this kind of thinking and emotion. Writers in the early 20th century were influenced by Nietzsche's thoughts to varying degrees.
Georg is an important writer of the literary trend of thought of "art for art's sake". He opposed naturalism and realism; He advocated "new art", that is, "pure art". He attracted a large number of writers, literary critics and literary historians through the pages of Art magazine, which was collectively called "Georg School". Austrian poet Hofmannsthal was once a famous "Georg" writer.
Rilke is a world-famous writer. He has some connections with the "Georg School", but there are also some differences. He felt lonely and miserable in reality, hoping that the reality would change, so he didn't completely escape to the illusory world of pure art that was far away from reality like Georg.
Parallel to the literary trend of thought of "art for art's sake" is realistic literature, whose main representatives are Henrik Mann, Thomas Mann and Hesse. In addition, Kellerman and Frank also belong to this category. Henrik Mann satirized the ugly reality, and his servant (19 14) vividly described the feelings and thoughts of the ruler of William Empire. Thomas Mann's Buden Blockx (190 1) describes the fate of the patriarchal civil class in the great development of capitalism, but he does not regret it, but is trying to explore the possibility of reviving humanitarianism and striving for human progress. Although most of Hesse's protagonists fled to the rural life after their lives were frustrated, they did not give up their original ideals.
After World War I, the literature from 65438 to 19 17 won the October Revolution in Russia, and then the November Revolution broke out in Germany. After the war, the situation was turbulent, and the German * * * Production Party developed and grew in the struggle. 1933 Hitler came to power, then fascist rule, World War II. This series of major events has pushed some bourgeois writers out of the "ivory tower" and gradually divided them in the real class struggle. As early as the eve of World War I, there appeared a literary movement called "Expressionism". A group of young writers (Heim, Trakel, Wolf, Bacher, Wolff, Toler, Bain, etc. ) Foreseeing the coming disaster, I want to avoid it through the strength of spirit and will, and then "transform" the whole world. In the storm of the post-war great revolution, expressionist writers appeared obvious differentiation. Bachel and Wolff gradually developed into proletarian writers, and the right wing represented by Gottfried Benn later became an anarchist. In addition, Toler, Hatzencliffe and even Kaiser all have revolutionary tendencies to varying degrees. Other bourgeois writers, such as heinrich mann, Thomas Mann, Arnold Zweig, Falada, F. Ikert Wanger, Frank, Misam, Chukmeyer, K, Doblin, remarque, Kellerman and so on. They also support or sympathize with the revolution, and some people at least don't object. However, due to their worldview, their understanding of society is abstract. They often metaphysically oppose individuals and collectives, human nature and violence, ideals and reality, and their sympathy or support for the revolution is often abstract or only temporary.
Among these writers, Henrik Mann is the most progressive politically and Thomas Mann is the most successful artistically. Thomas Mann's works are profound in content and exquisite in form. He can be said to be another great representative of bourgeois progressive literature after nearly a hundred years of tortuous development from Lessing to Heine.
The more important achievement of German literature in this period was the growth and development of proletarian literature. As early as 65438+1940s, proletarian literature had sprouted and poets like Wilt came into being. By the end of19th century, proletarian literature had developed further, and a number of writers such as Adolf, Walter Hatzencliffe, Ming Na Kaucki and Schwartze appeared, but their artistic achievements were not enough to compete with bourgeois writers, and their activities and influence were extremely limited, so an independent literary movement did not form. After the 1920s, the situation was quite different. First, it has a large number of writers. The German League of Proletarian Revolutionary Writers was founded in 1928. By 1932, it had 500 members, and there were 23 local organizations in China. Secondly, it has a number of outstanding writers, such as Bachel, Seigas, Venat, Kirsch, Wolff, Rennes, Bredel, March Vicha, Scheler, Golenberg, Brecht and so on. Their works not only play an important role in the real class struggle, but also are successful in art, such as Wolff's plays, Vejnar's political satires, Bredel's novels and Kish's reportage, all of which are quite level works; Bachel's poems and Seigas's novels are well-deserved among the world famous works. Brecht's plays and his original theory of "narrative drama" made him recognized as one of the most influential playwrights in the 20th century.
1933 when Hitler came to power, most proletarian writers and progressive bourgeois writers were forced into exile abroad. Facing the enemy of * * *, the two writers formed an alliance and formed a large-scale anti-fascist literature, also known as "exile literature". Anti-fascist literature is not only the opposite of chauvinist fascist literature represented by Green and Jung, but also represents the hope of the German nation. Henrik Mann and Thomas Mann, as well as Brecht, Siegel and Bachel, all created their excellent works in the anti-fascist struggle. For example, Henry IV (1935 ~ 1938), Yue Se and his brothers (1933 ~ 1943), and Lottie of Weimar (65438). Brecht's plays The Bold Mother and Her Children (1939) and Galileo's Biography (1947), and Seigas's novel The Seventh Cross (1942) were all written during this period. Therefore, if the period of fascist rule is a dark and barbaric era in German history, then the German "exile literature" in this period is brilliant and fruitful.
1At the end of the 9th century and the beginning of the 20th century, German literature entered a new historical development period. Although it was ruled by fascism in World War II and experienced great twists and turns, it did not end as a historical period. There are various schools of German literature after World War II, but they are essentially the continuation and development of various literary tendencies since the turn of the century.