Suleiman I (1494— 1566), the tenth generation monarch of the Ottoman royal family, was a famous politician and military organizer of the empire. His reign (1520-1566) was the heyday of the Ottoman Empire. Because of his military and political achievements, Europeans often regard him as Suleiman I, while he is called Canoni (legislator) in his own country.
Suleiman was born in Trabson, on the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor. When he was born, because his grandfather Bayezit Sultan was still in power, his father Salim I was only the governor of Trabson, and his mother Hafsa Hatton was the daughter of a Tatar Khan in Crimea. Suleiman received a good education since childhood and loved poetry and literature. According to the royal tradition, Suleiman 14 years old, with the help of a group of teachers and consultants, was sent to other places as a governor in order to gain practical experience in governing the country. He first went to Bolu province, which is close to the capital, and later transferred to Kafa, Crimea, to replace his uncle Mohammed, who had just died. After winning the throne in 15 12, Selim was too busy fighting in Asia Minor with his brothers Kurkut and ahmet to take care of daily affairs, so he recalled Suleiman to Istanbul and let him preside over the governance of the capital in the palace. After 15 14, selim was busy going to Iran, Syria and Egypt. It was not until 15 17 that selim returned to Istanbul from Egypt that Suleiman became the governor of Manissa province in West Asia. Selim had been working in Beijing and other provinces for many years when he died suddenly in September 1520.
As the only son of selim, Suleiman succeeded to the throne without any difficulty. He inherited a huge empire spanning Europe, Asia and Africa. He not only has an amazing number of powerful troops, but also has a relatively complete set of feudal state machines, and the administrative, judicial and financial systems are becoming more and more perfect. These advantages make it possible for him to do more than his predecessor. However, the international situation faced by Suleiman is more complicated than that faced by his predecessors. In Europe, his main rival is not the small Balkan countries that have fallen apart, but the Habsburg family, which has an overwhelming advantage in international politics in Western Europe. Charles V (1516-1556) ruled Spain, which not only colonized Latin America on a large scale, but also actively competed for hegemony in the Mediterranean region. Charlie also supported Austria's expansion to Central Europe and the Balkans under the rule of his family members. These are in direct conflict with the Ottoman Empire. The forces of Portugal, another maritime colonial power, reached the entrance of the Red Sea and Gulf region in the early16th century and approached the Ottoman Empire from the south. Russia in the north began to form a centralized state, which gradually affected the development of Russian-Turkish relations. With the strengthening of economic and political strength, Britain and France are paying more and more attention to the development of political events in the Near East. In Asia, he must meet the challenge of the rising Shia Safavi. The Iranian challenge is even more threatening because there are many Shiites in Xiaoya. Domestic problems also worry Suleiman. /kloc-At the beginning of the 6th century, peasant and herdsman uprisings spread all over Asia, especially the uprising in Celal the year before he ascended the throne, which seriously threatened the rule of the Ottoman royal family, and domestic class contradictions and ethnic contradictions tended to intensify. Suleiman began his rule in such a domestic and international situation.
Immediately after Suleiman ascended the throne, he began to plan a war of foreign aggression. His main goal was Hungary in Central Europe, and he decided to seize Belgrade and Rhode Island first. Suleiman's ancestors had long wanted to seize these two places, but they never realized it. Belgrade was under Hungarian control at that time. The occupation of Belgrade can not only consolidate its rule in Serbia, but also open the road to Hungary and Central Europe. 152 1 In the spring of, Suleiman mobilized tens of thousands of camels, loaded with rations and ordnance, and led an army of 65,438+10,000 troops to Belgrade. After three weeks of siege, he finally achieved his goal at the end of August. In June of the following year, 300 warships were mobilized and 65,438+10,000 soldiers attacked Rhode Island. At that time, the Knights of St. John on the island (1) had a powerful navy and often attacked Turkish merchant ships along the coast of Asia and the Mediterranean Sea, hindering the connection between the empire and Arab territories. Rhode Island has actually become a hidden worry of Suleiman's invasion of Europe. Suleiman commanded the Turkish army to carry out a siege for half a year and lost more than 50 thousand soldiers. It was not until the end of 65438+February that the Knights were forced to surrender conditionally.
After the aftermath was lifted, Suleiman failed to attack Hungary immediately. Domestic problems forced him to temporarily give up the war of foreign aggression. First of all, he met the rebellious Mamluk and the Governor of Damascus. 1524, Egyptian Governor ahmet Pasha publicly rebelled against Mamluk and declared himself the Sultan of Egypt in an attempt to restore the Mamluk empire. Only after controlling the domestic situation did Suleiman resume foreign aggression.
1526 In April, Suleiman led 65,438+10,000 troops, carrying 300 cannons, and officially went to Hungary. From Suleiman's occupation of Belgrade in 152 1 to the expedition in 1526, Hungary had five years to prepare for the war. However, due to the separatist and betrayal activities of feudal lords, Hungary has not been able to prepare for war seriously. It was not until mid-August of 1526 that Hungarian King Louis II managed to confront the Ottoman Turks in Mohac on the right bank of the Danube with an army of 25,000 people. On August 29th, Louis raided the Ottoman army before the reinforcements from Transylvania arrived. The result was a fiasco, and Louis II drowned in the swamp while fleeing north. In mid-September, Suleiman occupied Budapest, the capital of Hungary, without fighting. Commenting on this incident, Marx pointed out that the feudal lords in Hungary "opened the way to Germany for the Turks." However, at this time, the people's uprising in Xiaoya prompted Suleiman to quickly end his military operations. He withdrew his troops and returned to Istanbul after receiving a promise from Zapolian, the new ruler of Hungary and Duke of Transylvania, to recognize the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire and pay tribute.
After the Ottoman army withdrew from Hungary, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, with the support of some Hungarian nobles, sent troops to occupy the western and northern parts of Hungary, then defeated Zapolian and declared himself the king of Hungary at the end of 1527. Zaboliang turned to Suleiman for help, which led to the second Ottoman invasion in 1529. Suleiman commanded as many as 250,000 troops this time. After occupying Buda in early September, he immediately moved to Vienna. At the end of September, the Ottoman army arrived at the gates of Vienna, and 6.5438+0.2 million soldiers surrounded Vienna. The first siege (65438+September 27th 0529-65438+1October 15) began. There are only 20 thousand defenders in the city, and there is a lack of artillery. The Ottomans launched several attacks in succession, and 300 cannons opened gaps in many places outside Vienna. The situation is very critical. At the same time, a small group of Ottoman troops crossed the Alps, entered the Czech Bohemia region and southern Germany, and all the way to Laetis in Bavaria. However, in the face of the heroic resistance of the defenders in Vienna, Suleiman's army morale was shaken. Due to the early arrival of winter, the long front line, unable to guarantee enough food and ammunition, and the peace between France and Charles V of Habsburg royal family, the international situation became unfavorable to the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman decided to evacuate and return to Istanbul before the severe winter. Although this expedition failed to conquer Vienna and defeat Austria, it ensured Ottoman's position in Hungary and Zapolian's vassal relationship with the empire.
1532, 154 1, 1543, 155 1, 1566, the Ottoman empire also competed with the Austrian army for Hungary many times. 154 1 after the defeat of the Austrian army, Suleiman decided to directly incorporate central Hungary into the Ottoman Empire and set up Buda Province in order to avoid further coveting by Austria. Transylvania and neighboring Hungary formed a separate principality under the protection of the Ottoman Empire. Since then, although the competition between the two countries for Hungary has not stopped, the situation in Hungary has remained basically unchanged until the end of 17.
In Asia, the Ottoman Empire fought many wars with Safavi and Iran at 1534, 1548-49 and 1553-55, and won. According to the peace treaty of1May 29th, 555, the Ottoman Empire seized the western regions of Iraq, Georgia and Armenia from Iran.
At sea, the Ottoman navy competed with the joint fleets of Spain, Venice and other countries for the sea power in the Mediterranean. 1533, after Suleiman appointed Barbarossa, a pirate and famous naval commander, as the naval commander, the Ottoman Empire gradually became a maritime power. /kloc-in the autumn of 0/538, the joint fleet led by doria took the Ottoman fleet to Istanbul for the winter and suddenly broke into the Aegean Sea, shelling the main Greek port of Prevost. Upon hearing the news, Barbarossa immediately led a part of the fleet back to the Adriatic Sea, flanked the joint fleet from behind, and defeated the enemy fleet brilliantly in the waters near Prevost Sa. The strategy and tactics of this campaign can be compared with the time when British Admiral Nelson destroyed the French fleet more than 200 years later. The Ottoman navy not only maintained its superiority in the Mediterranean, but also expanded its territory in Africa. 1556 Tripoli was occupied, 1574 Tunisia was finally incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.
Suleiman also ordered the establishment of the Red Sea Fleet to enhance maritime strength. 1538, at the request of the governor of Gujarat on the west coast of India, Suleiman sent Chadim Suleiman to lead the Red Sea Fleet to help the anti-Portuguese struggle. As the Portuguese had seized the power of Gujarat and organized the defense of the Fifth Army, the Ottoman fleet had to return. The famous navigator Piri Reyes (1465- 1554) became the commander of the Indian Ocean Fleet and the Egyptian Fleet in 1547. 1548 recaptured Yemen, broke the Portuguese blockade of the Red Sea, and 1552 drove the Portuguese out of Muscat, but it never came true.
Suleiman reigned for 46 years, and * * * launched dozens of wars of foreign aggression. During Suleiman's period, the empire had nearly 50,000 regular standing troops, 6,543,803,000 feudal main cavalry and 250,000-300,000 other irregular troops. Suleiman mobilized hundreds of thousands of troops and hundreds of cannons every time he went out, and his strength far exceeded that of any opponent. Therefore, his opponents generally dare not confront Suleiman's army on the battlefield, and often adopt the strategy of sticking to the fortress or retreating. Of the 13 expeditions that Suleiman personally participated in, only 1526 Battle of Mohac in southern Hungary decided the outcome on the battlefield. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that Suleiman is an outstanding military commander. Only one thing is certain, he has rich organizational skills. Under the traffic conditions at that time, it was really not easy to ensure the logistics supply of hundreds of thousands of troops. Except for the siege of 1529 Vienna, the supply could not keep up, and other expeditions were organized in an orderly way, and the logistics were fully guaranteed. Suleiman fought so many wars in his life, but never fought two fronts at the same time on land. He instigated Uzbek countries in Turkmenistan in Central Asia to attack Iran, which reduced the possibility of Iran taking the initiative to carry out military action against Turkey. He also blocked negotiations that undermined the joint action of Iran and Austria. This shows that his diplomatic skills are also very clever. During his exploration, Suleiman wrote a detailed diary of his exploration, which provided valuable first-hand information for the study of these wars.
Between foreign wars, Suleiman attached great importance to internal affairs. He paid special attention to the reform and further improvement of the judicial and financial systems, and promulgated a series of laws and codes, from which the name of legislators came. As early as the beginning of his reign, he took a series of measures, such as lifting the trade ban with Iran, allowing craftsmen and intellectuals who were forced to move from Azerbaijan and Egypt to Istanbul to return home, paying for the grain and grass requisitioned along the way when the army went out to war, returning and compensating some confiscated property, and prohibiting the collection of additional taxes. He wants to establish a more perfect judicial system to protect the lives, property and religious beliefs of his subjects. In the late 1920 s and early 1930 s, he relied on famous jurists such as Abu Sud to modify and sort out the old law and formulate a new one. The criminal law clearly stipulates the punishment for robbery, murder, adultery and alcoholism. 1530 Suleiman Code has made new provisions on the fief system. Since then, only Sudan has the right to grant fiefs, and all fief owners must go to the empire for approval. The code also stipulates that feudal owners have the right to hunt down fugitive farmers, and those who have lived in new places for less than 15 years (20 years in cities) must be forcibly sent back to their original places of residence. Only Istanbul does not apply this provision. According to the principle of "ewes return to lambs", children of runaway farmers should also be repatriated. Suleiman Code completed the process of farmers' attachment to the land.
Suleiman knows people and is good at their duties. During his reign, many capable and talented prime ministers appeared, such as Ibrahim Pasha, Lutfi Pasha, Sokuru Pasha and so on. Most of these people are slaves. Suleiman promoted them to the highest position of * * according to their talents and achievements, which played a certain role in the administrative reform and improving the efficiency of the central government at that time. Lutfi Pasha is a very talented administrative official. From 1534 as * * * minister, from 1539 as prime minister. During his tenure, he tried to solve some problems that made the empire unstable and ended the harem's intervention in the administrative affairs of * * * *; Investigate all illegal acts, including detaining prisoners without trial and confiscating property without compensation; It is forbidden for officials to abuse their powers and illegally collect taxes for themselves and their relatives and friends; Establish a system for the Prime Minister to report the situation to Sudan and the Council and propose solutions. Based on his many years of political experience and research on the history of the empire, he wrote a book "Prime Minister" for Suleiman's reference. In his book, he believes that Sudan should protect the property and rights of its subjects; The prime minister should be honest with Sudan, be frank and outspoken, regardless of the consequences; The prime minister should not have any greed and selfish interests and accept no gifts; Officials should be appointed according to their abilities, regardless of political attitudes and personal relationships; Allegations against officials should be seriously investigated and dealt with fairly; Finance is the foundation of the country, and expenditure should be limited to income. He also opposed the tax system and advocated that it should be levied by tax collectors. Generally speaking, Suleiman's suggestions and measures that are beneficial to the country to the Prime Minister and ministers can be carefully listened to, adopted and actively supported. Officials who violate the law can also be dealt with seriously, regardless of their status and personal relationship. For example, he had a son-in-law, who was dismissed because of tyranny and misconduct during his tenure as governor. After mediation by his wife and the Empress Dowager, Suleiman arranged another job for him, but when he abused his power at work again, Su Liman immediately fired him, investigated him and ordered him to be executed, instead of stalking his extramarital affairs.
Suleiman's internal affairs rectification and reform, although it failed to achieve obvious results, improved the efficiency of state administrative institutions and alleviated the contradictions within the ruling class and between the ruling class and the ruled class to some extent. This is manifested in the fact that after 1930s, there was no major people's uprising in Xiaoya and other places, and the social order was relatively stable. The country's financial situation has also improved. Despite the constant use of foreign troops, Suleiman only felt financial constraints for two years when he was in office, and he needed to levy extraordinary taxes. The living conditions of farmers are better than those of serfs in Russia and Hungary.
As a feudal ruler, Suleiman could not consistently carry out his political opinions, and sometimes he broke his rules himself. He opposed the harem to do business with * * * *, but he listened to his pet wife Hurrem too much, which opened the door for her to organize henchmen, do business with government affairs and exclude dissidents. Suleiman has eight sons, and only mediocre and incompetent selim outlives him. Other sons either died young or died at the hands of the harem faction. Mustafa, the eldest son, is the most talented of all philosophers. He was made heir to the throne on 1543. Because Suleiman was born to Gulbaha, another wife of Suleiman, Lokselana and Prime Minister rustam formed a factional valve, attacked Mustafa and spread rumors, and even fabricated letters to frame him for seeking asylum from the Iranian king, which finally prompted Suleiman to order Mustafa's death. Suleiman became more addicted to harem life in his later years, and was controlled by Roxana and his daughter Mikhail maher. Suleiman advocated appointing officials on merit, but he also allowed rustam to stipulate that officials should pay a sum of money when appointing them, thus opening the door for selling officials and titles.
1566, Prime Minister Sokuru persuaded Suleiman to go to Hungary again, with the purpose of capturing Siegert under Austrian occupation and defending Hungary and Transylvania under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman, 72, is too old to ride a horse, but he still carries the team in a sedan chair. On August 29th, Ottoman troops occupied Sigat, and on September 5th, Suleiman died of gout in the military camp. Sokuru kept his death a secret until Selim II officially ascended the throne. Suleiman was buried in Suleiman Mausoleum next to Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul after his death.
Suleiman left behind a huge empire. During his reign, the newly added territories were: Hungary, Transylvania, Tripoli (Libya), Algeria, Iraq, Rhode Island, Eastern Anatolia from Van to Aldan, and a part of Georgia. This is reflected in his title of "ruler of two places and two seas, protector of Mecca and Medina, and master of Istanbul, edirne, bursa, Cairo, Damascus, Aleppo, Belgrade and Baghdad". During Suleiman's reign, great achievements were made in architecture, poetry, science and art, and a number of famous figures such as architect Sinan, poet Buck and geographer Piri Reyes appeared. Suleiman's period was undoubtedly the golden age of the Ottoman Empire. But Suleiman did not leave an empire full of vigor and vitality. The power of the harem, factional struggles, corruption and bribery, and selling officials and titles have greatly damaged the body of the empire. After Suleiman's death, with the intensification of various contradictions at home and abroad, the Ottoman Empire quickly fell from its peak.
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