Kant is often criticized. Without Kant's theoretical system, his system would never have come into being. Hegel's
Although the influence is gradually declining now, it has always been great, and it is not limited to Germany, nor is it mainly in Germany.
Country. /kloc-at the end of 0/9 century, the first-class academic philosophers in the United States and Britain were mostly Hegelians. In the pure philosophical paradigm
Externally, many Protestant theologians also adopted his theory, and his philosophy of history had a far-reaching impact on political theory.
The influence of. As we all know, Marx was a disciple of Hegel when he was young, and he completed his own theory.
Some important Hegelian features still remain in this system. Even though (in my opinion) Hegel's theory is almost complete.
Department is wrong, but because he is the best representative of a certain philosophy, this philosophy is not so consistent with others.
Therefore, it is all-encompassing, so it not only maintains an important position in the historical sense.
There are not many important events in his life. In his youth, he was very keen on mysticism and his views on the day after tomorrow.
It can be seen as a rationalization of what he initially thought was mysterious. He started as a personal assistant at the University of Jena.
Zent (unpaid lecturer)-He mentioned that he wrote Phenomenology of Spirit in Jena the day before the Battle of Jena.
Phenomenology of Spirit-Then I worked as a personal consultant at Nuremberg University and later at Heidelberg University.
He studied as a professor (1816-18 18), and finally worked as a professor at the University of Berlin from1818 until his death. He has talked about all the above universities.
Teaching philosophy. In his later years, he was a patriot of Prussia and a loyal servant of the country, enjoying a recognized philosophical reputation; But in the Qing dynasty
He despised Prussia, admired Napoleon, and even rejoiced in the victory of the French army in Jena.
Hegel's philosophy is very difficult. I think he is the most difficult to understand among all the great philosophers. A detailed start
Before discussing in detail, it may be helpful to give a general overview of his philosophy.
Because of his early interest in mysticism, he retained a belief that separation was unrealistic; According to what he said
It seems that the world is not the integration of some completely independent solid units, whether atoms or souls.
The self-reliance of limited things in appearance is an illusion in his view; He thinks that nothing is basic except the whole.
Totally real. But he didn't imagine the whole as a simple entity, but something we should call an organism.
He is different from parmenides and Spinoza in this respect. It seems that it constitutes the world.
Those seemingly separated things are not simply an illusion; They are more or less realistic,
Because it really seems to know that each is an aspect of the whole, and its reality lies in this aspect. With this
This view, of course, does not believe in the truth of time and space itself, because if time and space are considered completely true.
Yes, there must be separation and multiplicity. All this must have been a mysterious "hole" in his heart at first.
Review "; The refined product of rationality put forward in his book must have appeared later.
Hegel asserted that what is realistic is reasonable, and what is reasonable is realistic. But when he said this, his "reality"
The word "virtue" does not mean the meaning of empiricist. He admitted, and even emphasized, that all empiricists are like this.
The facts are unreasonable, and they are all unreasonable; Only by looking at the facts as a whole, from
Only by changing its appearance and personality can we see its rationality. However, considering reality and reason as the same thing,
Inevitably, there will still be some complacency, which is inseparable from the belief that everything that exists is just.
The complex totality, Hegel called it "absolute". "Absolute" is spiritual; Spinoza thinks that everyone
The view that it has not only the attribute of thinking but also the attribute of universality has been denied.
Hegel is different from other people who once held slightly similar metaphysical views in two aspects. One thing is to emphasize logic:
Hegel believes that the essence of "reality" can be deduced from the only consideration that it must not contradict itself. another
The notable feature (closely related to the first point) is that the three-dimensional movement called Dialectics is his most important work.
Are two "Logic"
In order to correctly understand the basis of his views on other issues, these two books are indispensable.
Logic according to Hegel's understanding, he clearly said that metaphysics is one thing;
That's totally different from general logic. His view is that any ordinary predicate, if
The result is contradictory. We might as well quote parmenides's theory:
The only real "one" is spherical, as an example of a surface. Nothing has no boundaries.
Sphere, unless there is something outside (at least virtual space), there may be a boundary. So, suppose the whole space.
If the universe is spherical, it is contradictory. (If we do non-Euclidean geometry, there is no doubt about this argument.
Objection, but this argument is useful as an illustrative example. )
Or, let's give a more superficial example-too superficial, far from what Hegel would use. you
It can be said that Jiajun is an uncle and there is no obvious contradiction; But if you want to say that the universe is an uncle, you are in trouble.
Bureau. The so-called uncle is a person who has a nephew, and a nephew is a person who is separated from his uncle; Therefore, uncle will not be "real"
All of you.
This example can also be used to illustrate dialectics, which is composed of questions, duality and combination. first
We said, "It's really uncle". This is the "topic". But the existence of uncle implies the existence of nephew. Because in addition to
Nothing really exists beyond "absolute". Now we have guaranteed the existence of our nephew, so we have to keep talking.
It must be a nephew. This is an "opposite". But this has the same defect as my uncle's view that "absolute" is my uncle's; therefore
We are forced to take the view that "absolute" is the whole of uncle and nephew. This is a "combined topic". But this
The topic is still incomplete, because a person must have a sister as the mother of his nephew to be an uncle. Therefore, we
Forced to expand our universe, including sisters and even brother-in-law. Some people think that in this way, only logic
A series of forces can constantly drive us to draw the final conclusion of dialectics from any predicate about "absolute", then
It is called "absolute concept" in the whole process, and there is a basic assumption that nothing is about the whole.
If it is "true", it can't be real.
This basic assumption is based on traditional logic, which assumes that every proposition has a subject.
Language and predicates. According to this view, all facts mean that something has a certain nature. So it can be seen that "relationship" is not
This will be true because this relationship involves not one thing, but two things. "Uncle" is a kind of relationship, a kind of.
People can be uncles and don't know about it. On this occasion, from an empirical point of view, this person has not become an uncle.
What has influenced my uncle? If we understand the word "quality" as putting aside his relationship with others and things, in order to describe him
If there is something necessary in itself, then this person has no qualities that he did not have before. Subject and predicate logic can be avoided.
The only way to solve this difficulty is to say that this fact is not only the nature of my uncle, but also the nature of my nephew.
Is the nature of the whole group of uncles and nephews. Because everything except "all" has various relationships with external things, but
Seeing that there is nothing completely true about individual things, in fact, only the "whole" is true. This is from the bottom.
The fact can be directly deduced that "A and B are two" is not a subject-predicate proposition, so it is based on traditional logic.
Series, there would be no such proposition. So there are no two things in the world, so we just regard them as a unified "whole".
It's true.
Hegel doesn't understand the above discussion, but it is implied in his system as well as in other systems.
In many metaphysical systems.
A few examples of Hegel's dialectical method may make this method easier to understand. He is in line with his logic.
At the beginning of the discussion, it is assumed that "it is absolutely pure"; We assume that it is pure and has no added mass. but
Pure existence without any quality is nothingness; So we reached the opposite: "absolute nothingness." Turn from this topic to the opposite topic.
Get to the point: the unity of "being" and "not being" is "change", so it is absolute change. Of course, it's not good,
Because what can be changed must be changed. In this way, our view of "reality" can be corrected by constantly correcting previous mistakes.
And development, all these mistakes are due to limited or bounded things as if it could be everything from this.
Due to improper abstraction. "The boundaries of limited things not only come from the outside world; Its own nature is to be promoted.
The reason for abandoning it is that it has become its opposite through its own role. "
According to Hegel, the process is very important for understanding the result. This seems to be the case in the later stage of every dialectics.
The solution seems to include all the previous stages; These stages have not been replaced by the whole, but as a whole.
And give it a proper position. Therefore, it is impossible to reach the truth without going through all stages of dialectics.
As a whole, cognition has a ternary movement. Cognition begins with sensory perception, in which only the meaning of the object.
Knowledge. Then, by doubting and criticizing feelings, knowledge becomes a pure subject. Finally, it reaches the stage of self-knowledge, in
There is no difference between subject and object at this stage. Therefore, self-awareness is the highest form of cognition. Of course, in Hegel's system,
This must be the case, because the highest kind of understanding must be the understanding of "absolute", because "absolute" is
"All", so it has nothing to know except itself.
According to Hegel, in the best thinking, thoughts become smooth and harmonious. Truth and falsehood are different.
Ordinary people think the opposite of sentences; Nothing is completely false, and we can realize it.
Everything you know is not completely true. "We can get to know each other a little wrongly"; We will be absolutely true.
This happens when an isolated knowledge is involved. For example, "Where was Caesar born?" There is a problem.
A straightforward answer is correct in a sense, but not in a philosophical sense. Philosophically speaking,
"Truth is everything", and nothing can be divided into truth.
Hegel said: "Reason is a conscious conviction of all realities." This is not to say that people who are separated are all.
Reality; As far as his separation is concerned, he is not very real, but his truth lies in his participation in the whole.
In ". As we become more rational, this participation increases accordingly.
The "absolute idea" mentioned at the end of Logic is something similar to Aristotle's "God". absolute
Ideas are thinking about your own ideas. Obviously, "absolute" can't think about anything except thinking itself, because except
There is nothing but a narrow and wrong way of understanding "reality". According to him, "very good.
God is the only reality, and his thoughts are reflected in himself through self-awareness. The notional words that define "absolute concept"
Often obscure. The unification of barres's translation ideas is the concept of ideas, which is based on the concept itself.
Yes, and starting from this concept, the objective world is an idea-in this objective world, all regulations are unified.
Here it comes. ) The original German text is difficult to understand.
However, the essence of the problem is not as complicated as Hegel said. Absolute concept is the purity of thinking with pure thoughts.
Thought. This is what God has done through the ages-he is really God in the eyes of a professor. He went on to say, "Because
This unity is an absolute, correct and complete truth and reason, and it is my own idea. "
Now let's talk about a wonderful feature of Hegel's philosophy, that is, his philosophy is related to Plato or Plotinus or Spino.
The difference of Lisa's philosophy. Although the ultimate is eternal, time is just invisible to us.
An illusion caused by "all", but the time process is closely related to the dialectical process of pure logic. fact
In fact, world history has always been "pure" from China (about China, Hegel has nothing but knowledge).
Known) to the various categories of "absolute concept", absolute concept seems to be in Prussia countries, even if it is not completely true.
Now, it is also close to realization. According to Hegel's own metaphysics, I can't understand the repeated dialectics of world history.
What is the reason for changing this view? However, this is what he wrote in his philosophy.
Y) in the argument. This is an interesting argument, which makes all kinds of changes in human affairs unified and meaningful.
Justice. This argument is the same as other historical theories. If it seems reasonable, it needs to distort the facts.
And quite ignorant. Hegel, like Marx and Bingler after him, are both qualified. strange
However, a process that is said to be the universe actually takes place on our planet, and most of it takes place underground.
Near the sea.
Besides, if "reality" is eternal, there is no reason to say that the latter part of the process is better than the former part.
Part of a higher category-unless people really want to adopt the blasphemous assumption that the universe is learning gradually.
Learn Hegel's philosophy.
According to Hegel, the process of time is from imperfection in ethical and logical sense to perfection.
Indeed, in his view, these two meanings are actually inseparable, because the perfection of logic lies in a secret.
To the whole, there are no uneven edges and independent parts, just like the human body, or more like reason.
Like the sexual spirit, it forms an organism, and its parts are interdependent and tend to a single goal together; This also constitutes
Moral perfection. A few paragraphs in the original text can illustrate Hegel's theory:
"Ideas are like soul guides, Mei Yuri, who is really the leader of all ethnic groups and the world; And the spirit is this direction.
The inevitable will of reason is the director of various events in world history, and it has always been so. mental
The guiding role of this understanding spirit is the purpose of our current work. "
"The only idea that philosophy brings to the observation of history is the simple concept of' rationality'; That reason is the master of the world.
Slaughter; In other words, world history thus shows a reasonable process. This belief and insight is within the scope of history itself.
A hypothesis. In the field of philosophy, it is not a hypothesis. Proved by speculative knowledge in philosophy: rationality-this
I don't care about the relationship between the universe and God, but just this term is enough-it is infinite, limited, powerful and practical.
Body; It is the form of all natural life and spiritual life.
In other words, what drives the content. Reason is the reality and noumenon of the universe. "
"This idea or reason is the existence of truth, reality, eternity and constancy, and absolute power.
It appears in the world, and in this world, nothing appears except it and its glory-that is.
As mentioned earlier, this is an argument that has been proved in philosophy and is regarded as confirmed here. "
"The world of intellectuality and conscious will is not entrusted to chance, but must be manifested as the concept of self-knowledge.
Son. "
This is "a result I happen to know because I have investigated the whole field in detail."
The above quotations are all taken from Introduction to Historical Philosophy.
The process of spirit and spiritual development is the real object of historical philosophy. Put the spirit and its opposite, that is, matter
By comparison, we can understand the essence of spirit. The essence of matter is weight; The essence of spirit is freedom. Matter itself exists.
Outside, the spirit has a center in itself. "Spirit is a self-sufficient existence." If this is not clear, the following will be decided.
Justice may be more telling:
"But what is the spirit? It is "one", its own unified infinity and pure identity, which is related to
Secondly, separate yourself from yourself as another thing of your own and as the opposite of * * *.
And "internal ownership". "
In the historical development of the spirit, there are three main stages: Orientals, Greeks and Romans, and Germans.
People. "World history is the training of unconstrained natural will, which makes it obey universal principles and endows it with it.
Subjective freedom.
In the past, the East only knew, but today it only knows that only one is free. The Greek and Roman worlds know a few things.
Freedom; The Germanic world knows, owns and is free. "People always think that democracy exists where the owners are free.
I'm afraid this system is a suitable regime, but it is not. Democratic politics and aristocratic politics also belong to the stage of freedom for some people.
Authoritarian politics belongs to the stage of freedom of the exclusive person, and the monarch, Lord and system belong to the stage of freedom of the owner. This has nothing to do with Hegel.
The extremely strange meaning of the word "freedom" is inseparable. In his view, there is no freedom without law.
So far, we can agree. But he always likes to reverse this sentence, thinking that as long as there is law, there is freedom.
Therefore, in his view, "freedom" means nothing more than the right to obey the law.
It is conceivable that in the development of "spirit" on the earth, he assigned the highest role to the Germans. "day
German spirit is the spirit of the new world. The purpose of the new world is to realize absolute truth as unlimited self-determination of freedom.
What kind of freedom is its own absolute form itself as its purport? "
This is a wonderful freedom. This freedom doesn't mean that you can't go to a concentration camp. This freedom does not mean that people
Lord, this does not mean freedom of the press, or any usual liberal slogan that Hegel despised. Dangjing
When God gives himself a law, he is free to carry it out. From our secular point of view, it seems that the law is imposed on others.
The "spirit" is embodied by the monarch, and the "spirit" added to the law is embodied by the subjects. But from an "absolute" point of view,
It seems that the difference between a monarch and his subjects, like all other differences, is an illusion, just as a monarch puts his ministers in a free mind.
It's up to you whether you are thrown into prison or a kind of spiritual freedom. Hegel praised Rousseau for putting the general will and all the people
Will distinguish. Presumably, the monarch embodies the general will, while the parliamentary majority only embodies the will of all.
What a convenient theory.
Hegel divided Germanic history into three periods: the first chapter ended with Charlemagne; In the second chapter, Charlie was influenced by religion.
Reform; The third chapter, after the Reformation.
These three periods are also called the kingdom of the father, the kingdom of the son and the kingdom of the Holy Spirit. The kingdom of the Holy Spirit actually went from suppressing agriculture
The beginning of the heinous bloody atrocities committed in the people's war seems a bit bizarre; But of course, Hegel didn't.
Don't mention such a trifle, but as expected, give Machiavelli a big compliment.
Hegel's explanation of the history since the fall of the Roman Empire is partly the result of world history teaching in German schools.
Part of it is the reason. In Italy and France, although a few people like Tacitus and Machiavelli.
There is a romantic admiration for the Germans, but on the whole, the Germans have always been regarded as "barbarians" who invaded.
The culprit was regarded as the enemy of the church: first under the great emperor, then the leader of the Reformation. always
Until the19th century, the Latin people regarded the Germans as less civilized than their own. German news
Christians naturally hold another view. They regarded the late Romans as exhausted people and thought that the Germans conquered Ciro.
The Malaysian Empire is an important step towards recovery. On the political dispute between the Holy Roman Empire and the Pope in the Middle Ages,
They adopted the view of the Emperor Party; Until today, German pupils have been taught to worship Charlemagne and Barbarossa infinitely.
Goodbye. In the post-Reformation era, Germany's political weakness and disunity were deplorable, and Prussia gradually prospered.
Welcome, welcome this makes Germany not under the leadership of Austria's slightly fragile old religion, but under the leadership of Protestantism.
Be strong. Hegel thinks about history from a philosophical point of view, Dior Dulica, Charlemagne, Barbarossa,
People like Luther and Kim Friedrich. To explain Hegel, we should focus on the merits and demerits of these people and learn from the morality at that time.
This will has just been insulted by Napoleon.
Germany is highly praised, so you might expect to say that Germany is the ultimate embodiment of absolute ideas.
Beyond it, I'm afraid there will be no further development. But Hegel's opinion is not like this. On the contrary, he said that the United States
Is the land of the future, "in the future era, the theme of world history should show-maybe.
He added in a typical tone that the struggle between North and South America is obvious. "He seems to think everything is important.
Love appears in the form of war. If someone really reminds him, America's contribution to world history may be to develop a infinity.
He is not interested in poor society. On the contrary, he said that there is no real country in the United States because there is a real country.
Needs are divided into two categories: the rich and the poor.
In Hegel's view, nationality depends on the role played by Marx's class. He said that the origin of historical development is the essence of the nation.
Jesus Christ. In every era, there is a specific country entrusted to guide the world through the dialectical stage it has reached.
Mission.
Of course, in modern times this country is Germany. But in addition to the nation, we must also consider world history.
Individuals; It is such people that their goals reflect the dialectical transformation that should take place in the contemporary era. This kind of person is a hero, he
It may violate ordinary moral laws, and it is not too much to violate. Hegel cited Alexander, Caesar and Napoleon as examples. I
In Hegel's view, it is doubtful that a person can become a "hero" without becoming a conqueror of war.
Hegel's emphasis on the nation, coupled with his unique concept of "freedom", shows his praise for the country-
This is an extremely important aspect of his political philosophy, and now we must turn our attention to this aspect. His national philosophy
This is reflected in both historical philosophy and legal philosophy.
Generally speaking, it is consistent with his general metaphysics, but it is not the inevitable result of this metaphysics; But somewhere,
At some points-for example, on the relationship between countries-his praise of the nation-state reached the same level as his emphasis on the whole.
The lighter part of this general degree of mental incompatibility.
In modern times, praising the country began with the religious reform. In the Roman Empire, the emperor was deified and the country was made up of
This also acquired a sacred nature; However, except for a few medieval philosophers, they were priests, so they put the church in the countryside.
Up there.
Luther, with the support of the owners of Protestant countries, started the opposite approach. The Lutheran Church generally believes in Ella.
What Stuart said Hobbes is a Protestant in politics and advocates the supremacy of the country. Spinoza also holds the same view.
Same. As mentioned above, Rousseau believes that the state should not tolerate other political organizations. Hegel is a fierce neo-Lutheran.
Christians; Prussia is an Elatus-style autocratic monarchy. These reasons will make people expect that the country will suffer losses.
Has aroused great concern of Hegel; But even so, he has reached a worrying extreme.
"Historical philosophy" says that "the country is a real moral life", and all the spiritual manifestations that people have.
Reality can only be obtained through the state.
"Because this is the spiritual reality of human beings: the essence of human beings-rationality-
It is objectively presented to him, and it has an objective and direct existence for people. Because "real things" are universal.
The unity of will and subjective will, and' universal things' should be in the country, in the country's laws and in the country's universality.
Found in a comprehensive and reasonable system. The country is the God who exists on the earth. "And he said," The state is a rational free body.
Now, this freedom has been realized in an objective form, and we know ourselves.
..... The state is a spiritual concept in the external expression of human will and its freedom. "
In the section on the state, the philosophy of law expounds this theory more completely. "The state is a moral concept.
Reality-that is, as a moral spirit, it shows visible and understandable substantive will; Think about yourself in this moral spirit.
Body and know yourself, and accomplish what it knows within the limits it knows. "The country is a rational person who works for himself. if
The state (advocated by liberals) exists only for the benefit of individuals, so individuals can own the state.
The member may not be a member of the country. However, the relationship between the state and the individual is completely different. because
Because the country is an objective "spirit", an individual is objective, true and moral just because he is a member of the country.
Rationality, the true meaning and purpose of the country lies in this combination. It is true that there may be bad countries, but only such countries.
It only exists, there is no real reality, and a rational country itself is infinite.
It can be seen that Hegel's position on the country is the same as that of St. Augustine and his successors on the old church.
Roughly the same. But from two angles, the requirements of the old religion are more reasonable than those of Hegel. First of all, the church didn't
It is not an accidental regional association, but a combination of * * * and creed that its members consider important.
The group that got up; Therefore, the church is the embodiment of Hegel's so-called "idea" in essence. Second, only the Catholic Church.
There is one, but there are many countries. Although every country has become autocratic in its relations with its citizens, as Hegel said,
It is always difficult to find out what philosophical principles regulate the relations between different countries. In fact, Hegel at this point.
Give up his philosophical empty talk, and take the natural state and Hobbes' national war against the whole people as the backing.
As long as there is no "world country", it is like talking about "country" as if there is only one country.
Habit is misleading. In Hegel's view, the so-called obligation is completely the relationship between individuals and countries, so it is not.
Abandon any principle that can be used to moralize relations between countries. Hegel acknowledged this. He said that in foreign relations,
A country is an individual, and each country is independent of other countries. "Because in this independence, the spirit of realism
"Owning" has its existence, so independence is the most basic freedom and the highest glory of a nation. "He continued.
Refute any international alliance that will restrict the independence of all countries. The duties of citizens (in his country)
In foreign relations, it is completely limited to maintaining the essential personality of this country, that is, independence and sovereignty. This shows that war
Not entirely evil, not something we should try our best to abolish. The purpose of the state is not only to safeguard citizens' lives and property,
And this fact constitutes the moral basis of war, so war should not be regarded as an absolute evil or accidental thing, also
We should not think that the cause of war lies in something that should not be.
Hegel didn't just say that a nation can't avoid war properly under certain circumstances. What he meant was far from it.
Stop here. He opposes the establishment of institutions to prevent this from happening, such as world governments, because he often thinks so.
War is a good thing. He said that war is a state in which we seriously understand secular property.
Empty and useless. This view should be compared with the opposite theory, that is, all wars have economic reasons. )
War has practical moral value: "War has a higher meaning. Through war, people of all countries have a healthy moral outlook. "
Kang was saved by their rigid indifference to all kinds of limited regulations. "Peace is rigid; Holy alliance and kang
Germany's peace alliance is wrong, because a family composed of many countries is bound to create an enemy. Debate between countries
The outcome can only be solved by war; Because countries are in a natural state, the relationship between them is neither legal nor legal.
This is not a moral relationship. The right of every country has its reality in its personal will, and the interests of every country are
Is its own supreme law. There is no contrast between morality and politics, because the country is not bound by ordinary moral laws.
This is Hegel's theory of state-such a theory, if admitted, then everything can be imagined.
All domestic tyranny and all foreign aggression have excuses. Hegel's power of deception is evident in this point: his country.
There is a great contradiction between his theory and his own metaphysics, and these contradictions are all cruel and international plunder.
Defense. If a person is forced by logic and regrets to infer the conclusion that he laments, he can be forgiven; but
It is unforgivable to go against logic in order to preach crime. Hegel's logic convinced him of everything in reality.
Sex or superiority (both of which are synonymous in his view) is more than some parts, and the more organized the whole, the more real it is.
Sex and superiority also increase. This proves that it is reasonable for him to prefer the country to the anarchic individual cluster, but
But this should make him like countries all over the world instead of anarchic country clusters. At home,
His general philosophy should also make him feel higher respect for individuals, because everything discussed in his logic is combined.
Not like parmenides's "Taiyi", not even like Spinoza's God, because his whole is like this: among them,
The individual did not disappear, but obtained a more complete reality through his harmonious relationship with the larger organism. Personal quilt
The neglected country is not the prototype of Hegel's "absolute".
In Hegel's metaphysics, there is no strong reason to emphasize the state and not other social organizations.
I can only see Protestant prejudice in his neglect of the church and the country. Besides, if, as Hegel thought,
It is good to organize society as much as possible, so there must be many societies besides the state and the church.
Organization. Inferring from Hegel's principle, it must be said that each item is harmless to society and can be revitalized through cooperation.
All undertakings should have appropriate organizations, and each such organization should have limited independence.
Maybe there will be