All kinds of disputes caused by moral ethics can therefore be classified into the field of psychology, and Nietzsche's view may reduce the importance of epistemology in psychology. A concept that frequently appears in Nietzsche's works is "the will to power". Basically, Nietzsche once thought that the power of will is much clearer and more powerful in explaining human behavior than Plato's view of love, Schopenhauer's "will to live" or utilitarian moral proposition. However, if we further extend this concept, why Nietzsche's meaning is still controversial.
Many of Nietzsche's philosophical thoughts have a critical style, and Nietzsche's most frequently criticized point is that he "lacks a constructive system". However, Nietzsche himself once said that he did not think that philosophy itself could construct an ideological system. In the preface to The Other Side of Good and Evil, he pointed out that many thinkers who construct their philosophical systems based on dogmatic principles often have only universal prejudices (such as the concept of soul). However, Nietzsche also has some constructive concepts, such as superman theory and eternal reincarnation. Nietzsche believes that superman is the goal that human beings and individuals can achieve through their own efforts.
[Editor] Book [Editor] The Birth of Tragedy Main Item: The Birth of Tragedy
1872, Nietzsche published his first book, The Birth of Tragedy: From the Soul of Music (Die Geburt der Trag? Die aus dem Geiste der Musik), 1886 was changed to The Birth of Tragedy: Greek Culture and Pessimism (Die Geburt der Trag? Die，or:Griechentum und Pessimimus)。 The second edition contains a preface-"An Attempt of Self-criticism", in which Nietzsche made some comments on his early works.
Different from the traditional view that ancient Greek civilization was noble, simple, elegant and magnificent in the Enlightenment [10], Nietzsche described ancient Greek civilization as the constant struggle between two unique factions-Apollo and Dionysus. In Nietzsche's view, Apollo belongs to the principle of individualism. Its elegance, composure and attention to appearance make people get rid of the pure natural world immediately. Dionysus, on the other hand, represents drunkenness, irrationality and inhumanity, and Nietzsche is also influenced by Schopenhauer's idea that irrational elements dominate human creativity. Nietzsche described how Apollo School dominated the thought of western civilization after Socrates, and put forward the possible ways for German romanticism (especially represented by Richard Wagner) to revive Dionysian School and save European culture.
When The Birth of Tragedy was first published, it was severely criticized by the classical linguist William Morendorf and others. By 1886, Nietzsche also had reservations about this book, calling it "an unbearable book ... badly written, boring, embarrassing and crazy."
[Editor] The untimely investigation began in 1873 and was completed in 1876. The untimely investigation collected four papers discussing the situation in Europe at that time, especially German culture (originally planned 13). In addition, the fifth paper originally entitled "Our Scholars" was not published until Nietzsche's death [1 1].
David Strauss: Confessions and the Writer 1873 Attacking old and new beliefs: Confessions written by theologian David Strauss (187 1), which Nietzsche regarded as one of the representatives of German social thought at that time. He pointed out Strauss's "new belief", a cosmic system designed according to historical development, and criticized it as a corrupt culture based on misunderstanding of history. Nietzsche not only criticized this book, but also criticized Strauss himself as a representative of vulgar and false culture.
The advantages and disadvantages of history to life, 1874 broke through the traditional view that "knowledge itself is the goal". Nietzsche put forward another way to interpret history, thinking that living a good life is the main concern goal, and described how this idea can improve the health of a society. Nietzsche also made a series of criticisms on the principles of classical humanism. Nietzsche criticized historicism (human beings are created through history), but also criticized that people can understand human views with objective concepts, because people live in the world purely because of their subjectivity.
Schopenhauer, an educator, 1874, used Schopenhauer's philosophy to explore the possibility of reviving German culture. Nietzsche especially pointed out the individualism, wholeness, firmness and happiness in Schopenhauer's thought, although Schopenhauer also had obvious pessimism.
Richard Wagner of Bayreuth, 1876, studied Richard Wagner's psychological state and drew a negative conclusion, which did not reflect the deep friendship between him and Wagner at that time, so Nietzsche did not publish it at first, but later revised it to a more positive evaluation. However, this paper foresees the future conflicts and differences between Nietzsche and Wagner.
[Editor] Humanity is too human. The first part of the book Humanity is too human was first published in 1878. Nietzsche published the second part, various viewpoints and principles, and the third part, The Wanderer and His Shadow, was published in 1879. These three parts were published in 1886 under the names of Menschliches, Allzu Menschliches and Einbuch fü r Freie geister. This book represents the beginning of Nietzsche's "mid-term works" in his creative career, abandons the influence of German romanticism and Wagner, and begins to show a completely positivist tendency. The writing style of this period seldom put forward a set of constructive philosophy system. These works consist of hundreds of aphorisms, sometimes only one sentence, and sometimes one or two pages long. The main content of this book is to expose many wrong assumptions, not to explain them, although Nietzsche also used some of his views in many arguments: he used positivism and the concept of power will as a means to explain problems, although the concept of power will was not mature at this time.
[Editor] Sunglow in Sunglow: Reflection on Moral Prejudice (Morgan? In te. Gedanken ü ber die moralischen vorurteile, 188 1), Nietzsche reduced the importance of hedonism in driving human behavior and emphasized the role of "power sense". His relativism is both moral and cultural, and his criticism of Christianity has matured. The aphorisms written by Nietzsche in this book are quite clear and calm, and all have a consistent style. Nietzsche's book seems to present readers with a unique experience, rather than trying to persuade readers to accept any point of view. Nietzsche will continue to improve these concepts in future books.
[Editor] Happy Science Main Item: Happy Science
The science of happiness (Die fr? Hliche Wissenschaft (1882) is the largest and most complete book in Nietzsche's mid-term works. Nietzsche continued to write in the style of maxims, and this book also contains a lot of poems, more than all other works. The theme of this book is to celebrate the happiness of life and bring aesthetic pleasure into life with a relaxed philosophical style (the title of this book comes from the dialect of Provence, France-representing the art of poetry). Nietzsche takes the theory of eternal reincarnation as an example to consider what kind of action a person should take with his life. This is different from the traditional Christian life after death-that is, people can sacrifice their current happiness for future returns. The happy science is most famous for Nietzsche's statement that "God is dead", which represents one of Nietzsche's ideas of trying to replace religious tradition with naturalism and aesthetics.
[Editor] "Zarathustra said" Main item: Zarathustra said.
1883- 1885' s Einbuch fü rale und Keinen symbolizes the end of Nietzsche's mid-term works and the beginning of his later works, and becomes the most famous and important book of Nietzsche. The writing format used in the book [65438] is quite unique. He adopted a philosophical novel style, which was similar to the New Testament and Plato's Dialogues, and also similar to the tone in Socrates' previous philosophical works. He often used natural phenomena as a means of rhetoric and storytelling. Nietzsche often refers to the traditions of western literature and philosophy to explain and discuss these traditional problems. Through the role of Zarathustra (the founding prophet of Zoroastrianism), he taught philosophy everywhere, describing his journey and the reactions of various audiences to his philosophy. The reaction of these audiences (just like other educational novels) can be regarded as a comment on Zarathustra's (even Nietzsche's) philosophy. These characteristics, combined with the fuzziness and contradiction of the arguments in the book, finally make this book popular with readers, but also make it quite difficult to be analyzed by academic circles (perhaps this is Nietzsche's original intention). Therefore, the book Zarathustra has not been valued by scholars (especially the analytical philosophy tradition of English-speaking countries). It was not until the second half of the 20th century that people became widely interested in this book and Nietzsche's unique writing style, in which he formally put forward the theory of eternal reincarnation and used Superman for the first time. Bermensch), Nietzsche used Superman's theory in all his later works.
[Editor] The other shore of good and evil: the other shore of good and evil
In Nietzsche's later works, The Other Side of Good and Evil: Prelude to Future Philosophy (Jensets von Gutund B? Se。 Vorspieleiner Philosophie der Zukunft) is closest to the style of his medium-term works. In this book, Nietzsche defines the conditions that a real philosophy should have: imagination, self-assertion, danger, creativity and "creation of value"-other conditions that he thinks are incidental. From this point of view, Nietzsche questioned some important assumptions in the philosophical tradition, such as "self-awareness", "knowledge", "truth" and "free will" which are often used by many philosophical schools. Nietzsche criticized these traditional ideas without sufficient evidence. Instead, he put forward the will to power to explain human behavior. Nietzsche put forward his own "outlook on life" in his book, which is considered to be "beyond good and evil" and denies that there is a set of universal morality in the human world. In the famous master-slave moral theory, Nietzsche re-evaluated the humanistic tradition that has long ruled western philosophy. He believes that even if the weak are dominated, possessed or hurt, not everyone is entitled to blame. Nietzsche carried out the arguments and viewpoints of moral relativism in this book.
[Editor] The main item of moral pedigree: moral pedigree
Zur Genealogie der Moral, composed of three monographs, was published in 1887, which was Nietzsche's last work before 1888 entered chaos. Every article pays attention to the development and tradition of moral concepts. Nietzsche tried to prove that the original origin of contemporary moral concepts had no moral basis at all, and the cruel power struggle was the main function of shaping morality. Compared with other works, this book is more inclined to the style of philosophical discussion in writing form and tone, so this book has become the main source of philosophical analysis of Nietzsche's thoughts.
In his first monograph, Nietzsche traced Christian morality back to the period he called "slaves rebelled by virtue of morality", and he described the "resentment" of the members at the bottom of society towards those at the top who were powerful and noble. Noble members regard "good/bad" as the standard to distinguish values, think that their superiority in society proves their superiority, and despise those members at the bottom. The slaves found that they could not face the fact that they were conquered by the strong, so they conceived a set of "imaginary revenge", described those strong as "evil" and described themselves as "good", and thus constructed a Christian moral concept, through which incompetent and weak members were qualified to survive on the earth. In his second monograph, Nietzsche described the social scene before this moral concept (which he called "traditional morality") appeared. Before that, the right to hurt people by violence came from a person's ability, just as animals also have the ability to remember and make promises. The punishment for breaking a promise is being hurt by violence. Therefore, according to Nietzsche, the tradition of imposing punishment does not come from any moral goal or theory. "Bad result" is also a concept that existed in society before morality appeared. If man is no longer free to wander around and plunder, his violent animal nature will turn to vent on himself. In the third monograph, Nietzsche discussed the concept of "perfect abstinence" in Christian moral concepts. Nietzsche believes that what lies behind the concept of abstinence is only a series of absurd and unfounded superstitions. Even in modern society, these superstitions still try to corrupt mankind in new and "secret" forms.
[Editor] Wagner event: Wagner event
The Wagner Incident: A Musician's Problem is Nietzsche's first book published in 1888, which is the peak of Nietzsche's creation and the last year before his madness. In this book, Nietzsche attacks Richard Wagner on an unprecedented scale. He admits that Wagner's works are outstanding musical achievements, but he criticizes that they are only the products of cultural decline and nihilism, so they are only symbols of weakness. This book shows that Nietzsche is also a sharp music critic, which also laid the foundation for his later thinking about the essence of art and the role of art in the future of mankind.
[Editor] "Idol's Dusk" Main Item: Idol's Dusk
Idol Twilight: How to Think Philosophically with a Hammer (G? Zeng-de? Merung, Oder Wieman Mittenhammer Philosophiert) is a controversial book, the title of which is taken from the fourth Twilight of the Gods (Die G? Tirda? In this short book, Nietzsche reiterated and summarized the criticisms of many major philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Kant and other Christian philosophers). In the chapter "Socrates' Question", he pointed out that no one can calculate the value of life, and anyone who tries to calculate the value of life only proves that he has a tendency to deny life or affirm life. He thinks that the development of philosophy after Socrates is "depraved" because those philosophers tried to use dialectics as a tool for self-defense, and the authority of traditional thought was destroyed. He also criticized the simplicity and naivety of German culture at that time, and criticized many major French, British and Italian cultural representatives. On the other hand, the representatives of these degenerate cultures are Caesar, Napoleon, Goethe, Dostoevsky, Thucydides and sophists in ancient Greece. Nietzsche thinks that these people are much healthier and stronger than the former. At the end of this book, I tell readers that Nietzsche is carrying out an important plan to re-evaluate all the values of human beings, and mention that in Nietzsche's view, the civilization achievements of ancient Rome are much higher than those of ancient Greece.
[Editor] The subject of antichrist: antichrist (book)
Delan Crist. A Journey to Christianity is one of Nietzsche's most famous and controversial works. In this book, Nietzsche launched a polemical criticism of Christian morality. Later, Nietzsche's image as an anti-Christian fanatic mainly came from this book. In this book, Linny collected all kinds of criticisms of Christianity in his previous works, but changed them into satirical styles to express his disgust and hatred for the corruption of slave morality and noble ancient Roman morality in Christian ethics.
He quoted some elements of Christianity-such as the Gospels, Paul, martyrs, priests and crusaders. He believes that these are all resentment against slave morality, and Christianity tries to promote weakness and unhealthy at the expense of stronger morality.
"God loves the world on the premise that the world should believe in him; Whoever doesn't believe in this love will give him an evil look as a threat!
"
In such an extreme critical style, Nietzsche did not forget to criticize Jesus Christ and many other important Christian symbols. Therefore, this book abandons the relatively neutral (though still exciting) analytical style in his other works and turns to polemic criticism with complete facts. Nietzsche also put forward a set of "antichrist" morality to transform the future: re-evaluate all values. For example, Nietzsche pointed out:
4. Conditions for the existence of God:
"Without a wise man, God itself cannot exist." Luther said this, it is reasonable; However, "God cannot exist without fools." This sentence, the kind that Luther never said!
The truth of blood
We can often hear a believer say this as a cover when his theological argument is refuted: "Believing in religion is a virtuous thing after all!"
As everyone knows, in the most perfect period of Christianity, there were inhuman inquisitions and murderous crusaders, all of which showed the cruelty of writing doctrines with blood, and the belief in hell in doctrines was immoral.
-Nietzsche, antichrist
[Editor] "Look! This man "main item: Look! This man
Nietzsche published "Look! At 1888. Ecce Homo is an autobiography with unique style. Some chapters are even titled "Why am I so smart", "Why am I so smart" and "Why did I write such a good book". Autobiography mainly describes the development experience of Nietzsche's philosophy, not Nietzsche's personal life. The book highlights Nietzsche's plan to study various philosophical traditions, but rarely mentions his theory about the division between philosophy and literature, as well as the conflict between philosophy and personal characteristics and body and mind. Nietzsche tried to relate many of his philosophical thoughts to his physical appearance. Occasionally, he deliberately described himself with extremely modest comments, and even showed a half-joking or self-flattering style (which is also a satire on Socrates' modesty). After describing himself, Nietzsche claimed that all the virtues in the world had been presented to him (including his father's early death and his extraordinary eyesight-to prove his resignation), and he also made a brief comment on all his works. The last chapter is called "Why am I Destiny". At the end of the book, Nietzsche tells readers that "eternal reincarnation" and "re-evaluation of all values" are the centers of his philosophical research.
[Editor] Nietzsche against Wagner was published at the end of 1888, and Akten Stü ckeeines Psychologen included a series of comments on Wagner and his music written by Nietzsche between 1878 and 1887. These documents illustrate the aesthetic differences between Nietzsche and Wagner, and describe how Wagner's music was gradually eroded by Christianity, Aryan supremacism and anti-Semitism.
[Editor] Unpublished Notes Main Items: Will to Power (Book)
Over the years, Nietzsche has written many manuscripts and notes, especially describing the development of his philosophical thoughts. After Nietzsche's death, Nietzsche's sister Elizabeth became the legal heir of these documents. She collected these manuscripts and published them in the name of Will to Power.
Later research found that Elizabeth did a lot of manipulation on the book, including extremely selective selection of manuscripts and arbitrary change of paragraph order. Therefore, at present, the mainstream academic circles believe that this book compiled by Elizabeth belongs to a revised version of revisionism, but she uses her brother's work as a medium to carry her own political views. Nietzsche always hated his manuscript being tampered with in this way when he was alive. In addition, Elizabeth further tampered with her brother's works in the future to cater to Nazi thought. These records prove that Nietzsche was later equated with fascism and anti-Semitism, which may be the result of Elizabeth's tampering.
/kloc-In the 1960s, scholars Ma Zhinuo Montinari and George Corrie published the first Nietzsche's notebook, re-examined it and sorted it in detail, and sorted Nietzsche's manuscripts in chronological order (Elizabeth and Peter Gaster classified them by subject, added titles, cut and pasted paragraphs without authorization, and even added other writers' documents without any indication, misleading readers into thinking that they were written by Nietzsche) [/kl
[editor] influence
Nietzsche's Archives in Weimar, Germany has a large collection of Nietzsche's works and manuscripts. Although the Anglo-American countries, which mainly focus on analytical philosophy, did not pay attention to Nietzsche's works until the second half of the 20th century, Nietzsche had a far-reaching influence on the philosophy of the 20th century, especially on European philosophy. One of Nietzsche's most important contributions lies in his attempt to expose the essence of existing social values. Nietzsche pointed out the role of human animality and desire in shaping human behavior, which also greatly influenced later psychologists such as sigmund freud and carl jung. The part of Austrian psychologist alfred adler's theory that attaches importance to psychological strength is also influenced by Nietzsche's theory of power will.
Nietzsche not only deeply influenced later existentialism, but also influenced deconstruction, postmodernism and hermeneutics. Nietzsche's "God is dead" has become the central argument of existentialism: if there is no God, there is no inevitable value or moral law. And if there is no necessary value or moral law, how should human beings treat themselves?
After World War I, Nietzsche's thoughts began to be associated with Nazism and anti-Semitism, largely because her sister Elizabeth tampered with his works. Elizabeth even took the initiative to cooperate with the Nazis, selectively explaining Nietzsche's theory and defending wars and aggression against other races and countries, although Nietzsche himself explicitly opposed anti-Semitism.