Essays are a branch of prose and a variant of argumentative essays. They have both argumentative and lyrical characteristics. They are usually short in length and in various forms. Writers often use various rhetorical techniques to convey their ideas in a tortuous way. Insights and emotions, flexible language, tactful and ironic, it is a popular literary style in a society where speech is not allowed.
Various definitions and attributions of the concept of essays
There are different opinions on the concept and attribution of essays, which can be roughly divided into the following categories:
1. Prose belonging to literature kind. This type of classification accounts for the vast majority. For example,
(1) "Self-Study Tutorial on Introduction to Literature" (page 135) [1] divides literary works into four categories: novels, poems, essays, and dramas, and clearly classifies essays as prose. The excerpt is as follows:
“Essays: literary essays, a type of prose, characterized by a combination of lyricism and political commentary, eclectic, rapid reflection of life events and people’s thoughts and feelings, and a blend of logical power and Combining fighting passion and embodying incisive expositions in images, it is short, concise, bright and sharp, with profound ideological nature, sharp combativeness and full artistic persuasion. In the history of Chinese literature, there are many progressive ideological contents. Most of the ancient essays with artistic value are famous essay works. In modern times, due to the advocacy and practice of revolutionary writers represented by Lu Xun, essays have become extremely sharp spears and daggers for exposing and attacking enemies, as well as criticizing bad tendencies within the people. weapons. Essays are mainly used for satire and exposure, but can also be used to praise new ideas, new characters, and new styles."
(2) "History of Chinese Essays in the 20th Century" [2] (Page 5) :
“Essays are miscellaneous literary essays that focus on discussion and criticism; essays take extensive social criticism and civilization criticism as the main content, and generally affirm and praise the truth, goodness and beauty by exposing and criticizing the false, evil and ugly. "The format of essays is rich and diverse, short and flexible, artistically requires rationality, lyricism and imagery in discussion and criticism, and has a clear sense of satire and humorous comedy."
(3)" Xinhua Dictionary·2001 Revised Edition"[3]:
"Essays, a type of prose, are literary and artistic essays that are mainly argumentative with narrative and lyrical elements. They are known for being short, concise, bright and sharp. There are many styles, such as essays, miscellaneous thoughts, miscellaneous talks, notes, etc. "
(4) "Cihai" [4]: ??
"Essays, a type of prose, are casual essays. Miscellaneous articles. They are generally characterized by being short, lively and sharp. The content is all-encompassing and the format is rich and diverse, including miscellaneous thoughts, essays, essays, notes, etc. This type of article. After the "May 4th Movement", through the efforts of Lu Xun and others, it became a literary and artistic article that directly and quickly reflects the real life of society or expresses the author's ideological viewpoint. It is good at being ideological and polemical; artistically, it is clever and artistic The writing is full of emotion and often uses metaphors to discuss people or things, which has a strong shocking effect."
(5) "Modern Chinese Dictionary" and "Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002 Supplement" [5] :
"Essays, a type of modern prose, do not stick to a certain form, but focus on discussion, and can also be narrative."
2. It belongs to literature, but does not belong to prose. . Such as:
(1) "History of Chinese Essays" [6] (page 8):
"Essays, together with novels, dramas, poems, and prose, are included in the elegance of literature. It can be said to be a kind of marginal literature."
(2) Liu Xiqing's "Artistic Prose: The Aesthetic Norms of Contemporary Prose Trends" [7]:
" Reportage, historical and biographical literature, essays, and essays should be separated from the "matrix" of prose, and the new "literary classification" can be independent. The ten-point method can be used: poetry; novels; drama literature; film and television literature; reportage literature. "Historical and biographical literature; essays and essays; artistic prose; national and folk literature; children's literature"
(3) "What Are Essays" by the famous essay editor and critic Liu Chengxin [8]: "Simple. In other words, (essays) are artistic short critical and satirical literary works, but they are not novels or essays. ”
3. It belongs to the “cross-type” literary genre.
(1) "Introduction to Literature" [9] attributes both essays and reportage to "intersectional" literature, also known as "marginal" literary genres, which have both literary and non-literary attributes. (See P86, P87)
“Essays are a ‘cross-type’ literary style that has both the nature of political commentary and the characteristics of literature.”
4. Belongs to “literature and art” "Essays on Sex"
(1) "Modern Chinese Standard Dictionary" [10] defines "essays" as follows:
"Essays are mainly argumentative, with narrative and lyrical The characteristic of literary and artistic argumentative essays is that they can quickly reflect social problems, are lively and combative.
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Although there are different definitions of the concept of essays in terms of content and emphasis, most people agree that essays are classified as literary genres, and almost everyone agrees that essays belong to literary genres. Essays are artistic or literary! This has led to the education field instilling this concept into students, causing the whole society to accept this concept of essays, resulting in many misunderstandings and confusion.
The essential characteristics of essays<. /p>
Essays mainly express the author's ideological views through "reasoning", that is, the author achieves the purpose of social criticism, civilization criticism, and political criticism through "reasoning" on a certain (type of) thing or thought. Analyze viewpoints, ideologies, words and deeds of a character, or certain types of objective existence (such as social systems, political orders, etc.), clarify your own opinions such as love, hate, approval, opposition, and evaluation, and explain the reasons for such opinions. and consequences. "reasoning" is the goal and process of essays
Let's analyze how essays "reason"
(1) Common reasoning methods in essays
① Deductive method: that is, using the author’s thoughts and opinions (of course, the source and reasons for the opinions, etc., if necessary) to judge and analyze events, a character’s words and deeds, thoughts and ideologies, and various existing institutional orders. etc., so as to arrive at a unique point of view and opinion.
For example: Xu Huaiqian's "Meditations in a Prosperous Age" [17], the author uses such a standard ("A true prosperous age is not only about economic development and people's livelihood." Economic indicators such as prosperity should be used, and there should also be a humanistic indicator, that is, whether each citizen is allowed to maintain his or her own personality and make his or her own voice heard. rule, the prosperous age of Kaiyuan, and the prosperous age of Kangxi and Qianlong), it can be concluded that except for the Tang Dynasty, other eras cannot be called prosperous times. In particular, it is deduced that today's "prosperous age" should learn from this point of view. The same is true of Shu Xue. Shan ""What if the country betrays its people"" [18] etc.
② Layer-by-layer reasoning: Develop questions based on what happened and existed, and first make a shallow question. The superficial, superficial answer that most people think is the answer, and then they have doubts or doubts about the answer, so they conduct further in-depth analysis, which leads the readers to the root and essence of the problem, just like peeling off the bamboo shoots layer by layer. Make the core clear to readers.
For example: Zhang Ming's "Zhao Wei Talks about China's History Textbook" [19] first uses the masses' apology to Zhao Wei (wearing a Japanese military flag) ("I don't know much about that history." ") doubts: Do college students in film schools know nothing about the invasion of my country and the Anti-Japanese War? Then after analysis, the answer is affirmative, why is this so? Finally, it comes down to the fact that the focus of our middle school history textbooks is not to truthfully record the Japanese invasion The atrocities and the heroic resistance of our country's military and civilians, but focus on demonstrating which of the two domestic parties are active and who is passive, who fights more and who fights less. This will of course make it difficult for children to receive the educational effects they deserve. The same goes for Liu Xingyu's "Yue Fei". Exploring the Cause of Death" [20] and so on.
③ Induction method: By analyzing multiple events of a certain type or multiple aspects of the same event, find out the different causes or results, and draw a new point of view.
③ Induction method: p>
For example: Hu Bin's "The Origin of Tragedy" [21], which analyzes all aspects of the entire process of the "11·24" shipwreck of the Dashun ship in Yantai (such as media reports, passing merchant ships, receipts from the Maritime Safety Administration Actions after calling for help, rescue operations, aftermath handling, etc.) were exposed and analyzed separately, revealing to the world a common characteristic: indifference to life, callousness, and numbness! So the author came to the conclusion that 280 lives were ruined by the numbness, callousness, and pathological mechanisms that pervade society, and thus the author found the root of the tragedy. Similarly, Zhang Yusheng's "Corruption and System" (in the reform of state-owned enterprises: sale, asset restructuring, property rights reform, demutualization, grasping the big and letting go of the small, revitalizing state-owned assets, etc.), each type of reform has one characteristic: severe asset loss. (as a price) [22]
④ Comparative method: Wangwen business, that is, by comparing two (or more), find their differences, and then analyze and comment on this difference and its causes . There are comparisons between foreign countries and our own country; comparisons between new material theories and old material theories; comparisons of similar problems and different treatment methods, etc.
For example: Zhang Xinyang's "American View of Heroes" [23], using the American's humanized view of heroes, examines and criticizes the long-standing dedication, heroism, and selflessness of the Chinese people. , heroic view.
Another example: Feng Wei's "Napoleon So Said" [24], Wang Dehou's "It hurts people without asking about horses" [25]
The above methods are used in essays. Two or more methods are often used in combination in creation. These methods are the more common methods in essay creation. Undoubtedly, there are also some other special reasoning methods in essays: for example, using some special images that contain special "reasons" to reason (mentioned below), etc.
(2) Analysis of images in some essays
Do the essays have images? Some essays have images, but the images in essays mainly serve to "reason", to enhance the vivid, lively, humorous and other styles, and to enhance persuasiveness.
① Borrow image.
The "image" of some essays is based on existing literary images or historical figures or even animals to explain their reasoning, such as: "Weizhuang People to Princess Diana" [26], and Ah Q, a novel character once created by Lu Xun, wrote a letter to the British princess, showing the different official-civilian relations between the two countries. Another example is Zhang Feng's "Black Cat Letting the Mouse" [27], which uses the images of cats and mice to satirize the current situation of our society.
② Generally, it is a more general, rough, incomplete and less detailed image.
In other words, it is impossible to compare with the image in literary works. For example, in Li Changping's "Sun Zhigang Died for Me" [28], there is a description of a process in which the author witnessed the Beijing police stopping people on the street, checking evidence, and arresting undocumented migrant workers into their cars. It used less than 300 words, so it is not so much a description. , it is more appropriate to say it is a concise eyewitness record or news report. For literature, this is not considered a successful image creation and plot description, but for essays, it is very common.
Essays are used to create images for the purpose of reasoning. Essays are generally small in length and must explain the truth and complete the purpose of social criticism, civilization criticism, and political criticism. Therefore, it is impossible to describe the character's appearance, dialogue, actions, psychology, etc. in detail to shape the character's image, and it is impossible to design various Conflicts and ups and downs of the plot make it difficult to describe the environment and create artistic conception. Therefore, generally speaking, the images in essays are generally more general and rough.
③ Use some special images that contain special "reasons" to explain the truth.
Are there any essays that do not require reasoning but only use images? Answer: Yes! This type of essay must have a condition, that is, the truth contained in this image is well known and does not need to be said. In other words, the viewpoint is not only uninnovative, but also hidden in the image, which is extremely "curious". Generally speaking, there are still not many successful examples of this type of essay.
For example: Wang Dahai's "The White-headed Maid Talks about Xuanzong" [29], the author was inspired by reading a memoir "The Day of Dancing with the Central Head of State" written by a female art troupe member (she was in the late 1950s) In the early 1960s, he was transferred to the capital to carry out "major political tasks" - dancing with the heads of the central government and living a spiritually and materially rich life. She stepped forward, so she was shot; she imagined that in an era when she was "spiritually and materially rich", millions of people starved to death everywhere; she reminded Tang poetry: the ancient palace is lonely, the palace flowers are lonely and red, the white-headed palace maid is here, sitting around talking about Xuanzong ...The articles are presented like scenes in a movie. Its greatest success as an essay lies in its courage to show unique and shocking "pictures" (images), and to use the ideological weapons contained in these "pictures" that are profound and understood by the world to directly attack the people of the 1950s and 1960s. The central leaders (many of whom are still alive) exposed the corruption of the chief officials and the strong class contrast of "the wine and meat smell of the rich families, and the bones on the road are frozen to death", which gave the article an extremely sharp intensity. It is undeniable that this is a rare and successful essay that uses special images to explain reasoning.
(3) The real reason why some essays are dry
Some people criticize: "Some reasoning essays are dry because the works lack literature (that is, image)." That's right. ? No? In fact, there are two reasons why the essays are dry: First, there is no profound thought and theoretical foundation. The second is that they have not mastered the rules and techniques of reasoning (including logical reasoning ability and the skill of using "image" reasoning). On the contrary, many works focus on literary nature, but they write novels and tell stories throughout the text, but fail to explain the truth deeply and dilute the intensity of criticism. For example, Liu Zheng's "Recording of Punchline" and "Zhuang Zhou Buys Water" [30] have this tendency.
(4) Essays are not all political style or argumentative style
① The concept and characteristics of political style [31]:
Written style is divided into : Business style, science and technology style, political style, literary style.
The style of political commentaries is also called the style of propaganda and agitation. It promotes and mobilizes the masses by discussing various issues in the field of social and political life. Political commentaries include editorials, current commentaries, declarations, short commentaries, etc.
Characteristics of political commentaries:
a. Since specific analysis, systematic discussion, rigorous argumentation, and appeal to readers’ rational thinking are required when elaborating on various issues, It must have strong logic.
b. In order to achieve the purpose of propaganda and agitation, vivid or humorous verbal expressions are often used. Rhetorical techniques such as metaphors, parallelism, allusions, rhetorical questions, irony, and antithesis are often used.
c. In terms of word selection, in addition to a large number of written words, some vivid spoken words and ancient words are also used occasionally. Extensive use of political and professional terminology.
② The concept and characteristics of argumentative essays [32]:
Anyone who expresses his or her own opinions, criticizes the opinions of others, and debates the pros and cons of things for the purpose of making others recognize them Text is called argumentative essay. An argumentative essay is to state rebuttal opinions and put forward your own opinions to convince the reader.
The structure of argumentative essays must be strict, with clear arguments, proofs, and conclusions, and arguments, arguments, and argumentation processes are indispensable.
③ Some essays do not conform to the concepts and characteristics of political style and argumentative essays
Judging from the large number of essays currently available, it should be said that most of them conform to the political style. Those essays that conform to the nature and characteristics of argumentative essays belong to the political style or argumentative style; but there are still some essays that do not conform to the nature and characteristics of political style and argumentative essays, and do not belong to the political style or argumentative style.
For example:
In the form of meeting minutes: Chen Qiaolin's "Minutes of the Seminar on Liquor Ban" (No. 5 of "Selected Essays", 1996)
In the form of question and answer : Wei Minglun's "Little Ghost's Supplement" ("Selected Essays", Issue 7, 1997)
In the form of absurd stories: "Death's Bill" by Zeng Ying ("Selected Essays, Issue 7, 2001")
In the form of new stories: Zhang Feng's "New Biography of Iron Pestle Grinding Needles" (published in the 9th issue of "Selected Essays" in 2004)
In the form of rewritten reports: Zhu Jianguo's "Rewriting Ye Qiaobo" (The 1st issue of "Selected Essays" in 1998)
In the form of letters: Jia Pingwa's "Book of Ci Banquets" (The 4th issue of "Selected Essays" in 1998)
In the form of antithesis : Su Zhongjie's "New Edition of "Enlightenment of Rhythm"" (2000, Issue 2 of "Selected Essays")
In the form of anthropomorphic fairy tales: Si Mao's "The Life of a Hundred-Yuan Bill" (1999, Issue 8 of "Selected Essays") "Selected Essays")
In the form of manual provisions: Chen Zhang's "New Cadre Manual" (No. 5, "Selected Essays", 2000)
In the form of sentence-making assignments for primary school students: Ye Dachun's "Song of Dan" ("Selected Essays", Issue 10, 2000)
In the form of chronology and annotations: Huang Yilong's "Commentary on the "Outline of the Chronicle of Cheng Kejie"" ("Selected Essays", Issue 2, 2001) 》)
In the form of philosophical quotes: Wang Dahai's "The Falling Leaves of Thought" (Selected Essays, Issue 4, 2001)
In the form of a hospital diagnosis report: Su Zhongjie's "Patient Wu Liangzhi" Mr.'s Medical Treatment Report" ("Selected Essays", Issue 7, 2001)
In the form of a press release: Zhang Xinyang "Writing a Manuscript for a Follower Reporter" ("Selected Essays", Issue 1, 2002) < /p>
In the form of a diary: "Lehe Diary" by Yan Zhaoke (published in the 9th issue of "Selected Essays" in 2004)
In the form of an introduction in the explanatory text: Mou Pizhi's "Introduction to Hominids" ” (Selected Essays, Issue 9, 2004)
In the form of a literary essay: Li Fang’s “If Liang Shanbo was not recruited” (Selected Essays, Issue 2, 2003)
As well as the aforementioned "The White-Headed Maid Talks about Xuanzong" by Wang Dahai, there is not a single line of discussion in the entire article, only a picture.
…………
Enough! It is enough to see that the formal characteristics of essays have gone beyond the scope of the formal characteristics of political commentaries or argumentative styles. Even manuals, chronology, hospital diagnosis reports and other forms can be used in essays, and they do not necessarily have strict logic.
It can be seen from this that the view that essays belong to the political style or argumentative style is incomplete and difficult to establish.
Therefore, essays do not belong to the political style or argumentative style. In short, essays are "miscellaneous" and cannot be classified into a certain genre at all, but can only be classified into articles.
(5) There is an essential difference between today’s essays and historical satires and remonstrances
Although there are some similarities between today’s essays and historical satires and remonstrances, historical The satirical admonitions and remonstrances in the book were born under the feudal hierarchy, and they embody the culture of "loyalty" and "righteousness" under the feudal hierarchy.
The essays we are talking about today were produced and developed in modern Western culture where modern democracy, people-oriented, human rights, and power must be subject to constraints and supervision. Therefore, I disagree with what Wu Xingren believes in "History of Chinese Miscellaneous Essays": Essays originated from the satirical admonitions and remonstrance theories of various scholars in ancient times, and developed until Lu Xun's collected works. I think essays should originate from Lu Xun's essays during the New Culture Movement. They are the embodiment of two different cultures, with different functions and roles. This is their essential difference.