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First, take time as the line. The history of ancient literature is divided into chapters according to time and dynasty. We should grasp this clear clue in the process of learning, and don't confuse the knowledge points in different periods. For example, the history of ancient Chinese literature (1) is divided into pre-Qin literature, Qin and Han literature, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties literature and Sui and Tang Dynasties literature, so learners should have such a macroscopic consciousness in their minds to distinguish which dynasty and period literary phenomena and writers belong to.
Second, take literary phenomena as the key link. Literary phenomena and literary styles are different in different periods. Under the clue of time, we can classify according to different literary phenomena and styles. For example, there are poems, essays, novels, literary criticism and other styles in the literature of Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, which can be found one by one in the book (in fact, this can also be found in the textbook catalogue).
Third, treat people as pearls. Under various literary phenomena and literary styles, find out their representatives and their views, the styles and characteristics of important writers' works respectively. This step is trivial and needs everyone's patience. When summing up and sorting out, you can summarize it in a few simple words, which is beneficial to memory. Huaxia Dida Education Network (\7d0M/D5q${.iY8G
Time, various literary phenomena, literary styles and writers' works can be sorted out in the form of tables, so it is clear at a glance. For example, the fifth part (II) of the History of Ancient Chinese Literature can be sorted out in this way, according to the times, periods, writers and knowledge points from four periods: the early Northern Song Dynasty, the middle Northern Song Dynasty, the late Northern Song Dynasty, the middle and early Southern Song Dynasty and the late Southern Song Dynasty.
The internal and external factors of literary evolution: the unbalanced development of China literature: the infiltration and blending of popular and elegant styles; Transformation and innovation of literature and Taoism.
There are both external and internal factors that promote the evolution of China literature. The so-called external factors refer to the influence of social economy, political culture, ethnic contradictions and geographical environment. For example, the great social, economic and political changes in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period brought about a hundred schools of thought in culture, and correspondingly, literature flourished. The political background of the unification of the Han Dynasty and the policy of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty to "oust a hundred schools of thought and respect Confucianism alone" directly influenced the appearance of Han Fu and the characteristics of Han prose. The yellow turban insurrectionary uprising and warlord scuffle at the end of Han Dynasty influenced the thinking of Jian 'an generation and created a new situation of Jian 'an literature. The confrontation between the north and the south led to different styles of writing, and the unification of Sui and Tang Dynasties and extensive foreign cultural exchanges in the Tang Dynasty promoted the prosperity of Tang Dynasty literature. The rise of Neo-Confucianism in the Song Dynasty, the increase of opportunities for scholars to become officials and the development of printing have had an important impact on the literature of the Song Dynasty. The status of literati in Yuan Dynasty was low, and they went to the market, which directly promoted the development of Yuan Zaju. After the middle of Ming Dynasty, the commercial economy prospered and the citizens grew up, which reflected and adapted to this new social situation, and the literature changed epoch-making. In the early years of Qing Dynasty, ethnic contradictions were prominent, which were also reflected in literary creation. 1840 after the opium war, China became a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society, and great changes have taken place in literature. These are all easy to understand.
The internal factors of the evolution of China literature is a very complicated problem. First of all, we should consider the imbalance of literary development. Because China has a long history and a vast territory, the imbalance in the development of China literature is particularly prominent. This is manifested in the following aspects:
First, the imbalance of style development. All styles have a process from germination to formation and then to maturity. The so-called unbalanced development of styles includes two aspects: on the one hand, the formation and maturity of various styles have different times, including first and then. Poetry and prose are the earliest two styles. As early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, there were poems recorded in writing. In China's various styles, poetry and prose are the basis. It was not until the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties that novels began to take shape, and it was not until the middle Tang Dynasty that mature novels appeared. During the Song and Jin Dynasties, Song Zaju and Jin Benyuan appeared, which marked the formation of China opera. The above is the general outline of the style. If subdivided, parallel prose was formed after Wei and Jin Dynasties, ci was formed in the middle Tang Dynasty, vernacular short stories were formed in the Song Dynasty, vernacular novels were formed in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, and Sanqu was formed in the Yuan Dynasty. The time difference between the formation of various literary styles in China is several hundred years or even one or two thousand years, which shows how prominent this imbalance is. On the other hand, the length of the process from initiation to formation to maturity is also different. For example, novels, from ancient myths to Tang legends, have gone through an extremely long time; The formation process of volt is much shorter.
Second, the imbalance of dynasties. It is easy to understand that the overall achievements of literature in different dynasties are different. Some dynasties were relatively prosperous, while others were relatively mediocre. Moreover, each dynasty has its own relatively developed style, such as: Fu in Han Dynasty, Poetry in Tang Dynasty, Ci in Song Dynasty, Qu in Yuan Dynasty, Novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties. This is not to say that other styles of these dynasties are not worthy of attention, such as Song poetry, Qing poetry and Qing ci, which are also very important, but as representative styles, they are still those mentioned above. In fact, the development of literature within a dynasty is also unbalanced. In some dynasties with a long history, such as Han, Tang, Song and Ming, the initial literature was relatively mediocre, and it reached its climax after two or three generations of efforts. Some small imperial courts may suddenly have a certain style, such as the poems of Liang and Chen, the poems of Southern Tang and Western Shu.
Third, the geographical imbalance. The so-called regional imbalance contains two meanings: first, in different dynasties, the development of literature in various places fluctuated, showing a situation of prosperity and decline. For example, Jian 'an literature is concentrated in Yedu; Beam is concentrated in Jinling; There were more poets in Henan and Shanxi in Tang Dynasty, but fewer poets in Ming and Qing Dynasties. There were many Jiangxi poets in Song Dynasty, but few before and after. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the style of writing in Jiangsu and Zhejiang was the most prosperous, with the most writers. Lingnan literature is particularly noteworthy in modern times. Second, different regions have different styles, so that some styles have different local characteristics, at least for a long time after their formation. For example, Chu Ci has obvious Chu characteristics, five pronouns have distinct Jiangnan characteristics, zaju has strong northern characteristics, and Nanxi has outstanding southern characteristics. The regional development of China literature shows that there is more than one birthplace of China literature.
We should pay full attention to the unbalanced development of China literature. When explaining the evolution of literature, we should highlight the main line and describe it in three dimensions. Secondly, in the evolution of China literature, there are some opposing and complementary factors, and their interaction deserves attention.
For example, the interaction, transformation and promotion between vulgarity and elegance. The "national style" in The Book of Songs is originally a folk song. After finishing by Confucius, it became elegant after being regarded as a classic by Confucianism in the Han Dynasty and explained. Folk songs in the Southern Dynasties originated in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. This is a vulgar and vulgar literary work, but it has aroused the interest of the court scholars of Liang and Chen, and contributed to the emergence of Liang and Chen Gong's style poems from one side. Ci was originally a popular folk tune in the Tang Dynasty, and gradually refined in the process of development. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, when operas were sung by Vacherie in Goulan, a street corner, they were popular literature adapted to the tastes of citizens. Later, literati took this popular literary form and improved it, resulting in exquisite and elegant works such as Peony Pavilion, Palace of Eternal Life and Peach Blossom Fan. Between vulgarity and elegance, it is mainly the influence and promotion of vulgarity on elegance and the change from vulgarity to elegance. There are also some examples from elegance to vulgarity. Some poets in the Song Dynasty deliberately took vulgarity as beauty, ostensibly turning vulgarity into elegance, but actually turned originally elegant poetry into vulgarity, seeking new interests in vulgarity.
The interaction between vulgarity and elegance makes the long river of literature keep fresh, and at the same time, it is constantly supplemented and stirred by fresh living water. Another example is the mutual penetration and integration of various styles. Each style has its own unique system and function, which constitutes the boundary between styles. As early as in Dian Lun Essays, Cao Pi said: "The recitation should be elegant, the book should be rational, the topic should be realistic and the poem should be beautiful." Later, there were more and more new styles, the classification became more and more detailed, and the understanding of different styles of systems and functions became more and more accurate. Stylistic discrimination is a noteworthy problem, but stylistic integration is a big problem related to the development of literature. For example, the difference between poetry and fu is obvious: the poet is in love, while fu is physical; Poetry does not avoid simplicity, and fu is not tired of complexity; The beauty of poetry lies in introversion, and the beauty of fu lies in spreading; Poetry is for fun, not for show. However, after Wei and Jin Dynasties, Fu absorbed the characteristics of poetry, and lyrical little Fu prevailed and was full of poetry. Poetry in the early Tang Dynasty absorbed the characteristics of Ci and Fu, and Ci and Fu appeared, such as Lu's Ancient Meaning of Chang 'an. For another example, words and poems not only have different systems, but also have different functions and styles in their early days. "Words for the body, should be difficult to repair. You can say what poetry cannot say, and you can't say what poetry can say. The poem is vast and the words are long. "The meaning of the word is to entertain people. It is an entertainment product for girls of seventeen or eighteen who sing and dance lightly and merrily on the basis of a wonderful feast. Political education and the big topic of being born in poverty are all expressed in poetry. Words just vent the feelings on the back that can't and can't be accommodated in poetry, and the boundary between poetry and words is clear. But since Su Shi, poetry has been endowed with the function of poetry, and the boundary between poetry and words has been blurred to a considerable extent. Zhou Bangyan absorbed the writing method of Fu, took Fu as a word, and tried his best to exaggerate within the limits of the word, which made a breakthrough in the territory of poetry and Fu. However, Xin Qiji took Wen as his ci, and the distance between ci and Wen also narrowed. For another example, the boundary between poetry and prose was clear, but it was blurred after the Song Dynasty. The reason why Song people can find another way and open up a new situation after Tang poetry is that they regard literature as poetry and break this boundary to some extent. For another example, China's novels have absorbed many poems, and tang legends's famous works, such as Yingying Biography, Li Wa Biography, Song of Eternal Sorrow, etc., are full of deep poetry. Vernacular novels after Song and Yuan Dynasties are also closely related to poetry. In the Song Dynasty, people usually talk and sing, and those lyrics are poems. Therefore, some novels are simply called "Poetry Talk" and "Ci Talk". Among the various factors of China traditional opera, lyrics occupy a very important position, and lyrics are also a kind of poetry. Without lyrics, there would be no traditional opera.
One style permeates and blends with other styles, absorbs the artistic features of other styles and seeks new changes, which is an important way for the development of China literature.
Another example is the alternation and collision between retro and innovation. This is a literary movement, mainly in the field of poetry. After Wei and Jin Dynasties, literature embarked on the road of consciousness, and literary creation was constantly innovating consciously or semi-consciously. In this case, Liu Xie specifically discussed the spread and change of literature in Wen Xin Diao Long Tong Change, that is, the issues of karma and change, inheritance and innovation, which have already involved the issues of retro and innovation. Since the Qi and Liang Dynasties, poetry has pursued sensuality excessively, which has produced some disadvantages. (Liang) Pei's On Carving Insects was severely criticized. Chen Ziang, a poet in the early Tang Dynasty, shouted loudly to restore the true colors of the Han and Wei Dynasties, becoming the first influential voice of restoring ancient ways in the history of China literature. In fact, Chen Ziang's Memories of Time Past is an innovation, which promotes the unity of melody and melody, and is one of the factors leading to the peak of poetry in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. In the mid-Tang Dynasty, Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan raised the banner of restoring ancient ways on the literary map, opposed the parallel prose prevailing since the Six Dynasties, and advocated the ancient prose of three generations and two Han dynasties. In fact, the retro style of Han and Liu is also an innovation, which is to establish a new literary language and style integrated with "Tao" on the basis of three generations of ancient prose. After Han and Liu Dynasties, ancient prose declined once, and parallel prose rose again. It was not until Ouyang Xiu, Su Shi and others advocated and wrote ancient prose again in the Song Dynasty that the unshakable position of ancient prose was established.
It can be seen that the interaction between retro and innovation is also a way of the evolution of China literature.
Another example is the clutch between literature and Tao. This mainly refers to the relationship between literature and Confucian ethics and political ideals. Since the dominance of Confucianism was established in Han Dynasty, the relationship between literature and Confucianism has been restricting the evolution of literature itself. Literature has different degrees of separation and integration, either deviating from the Tao or combining with the Tao. In addition, Taoism, Buddhism and ideas reflecting citizens' demands have also infiltrated in different degrees, giving external forces to literary research in different directions and affecting the development of literature. Literature is suitable for Confucianism, and there have been many excellent writers, such as Du Fu, Han Yu, Bai Juyi and Lu You. Literature left Confucianism, and many excellent writers appeared, such as Tao Yuanming, Li Bai, Su Shi and Cao Xueqin. After the Tang Dynasty, there were many discussions about "Ming Dow", "Penetrating Taoism" and "Carrying Taoism". The expressions of "Ming Dow", "Daoism" and "Daoism" collide and complement each other with the requirements of expressing one's own spirit and aesthetic entertainment. After the rise of citizens, the idea of resisting feudal ethics rose, and new voices were issued in the opposition between emotion and reason, which was easy to hear from operas and novels. These different factors and their interaction promoted the evolution of China literature.
In the process of separation or combination of literature and Taoism, China literature has evolved.