Japan's economy developed significantly in the early Muromachi era. In agricultural production, agricultural tools are constantly improved and production technology is constantly improved. According to the maturity stage, rice is divided into early, middle and late rice. In Ying Yong 10 (A.D. 1403), the North Korean ambassador to Japan, in his report on his return to China, expressed admiration for the methods used by Japanese farmers to irrigate their fields with water tractors. Due to the improvement of irrigation technology, even some economically backward areas have implemented multiple cropping of rice and wheat. In the twenty-seventh year of Yingyong (A.D. 1402), Song Xijing even mentioned three-season rice in his book A Trip to Japan at Laosongtang. Because of these reasons, the yield per unit area of rice has increased significantly, and the yield of 1 stone 3-4 bucket can be obtained after entering the field, which is similar to that of1the second half of the 6th century. Millet, barnyard grass, Lebanon and other crops are widely planted, and economic oak sesame, stubble (raw material of lamp oil) and blue grass (dye) are also planted in various places. People know how to choose varieties to adapt to the characteristics of the soil, so many specialties have appeared in various places, such as hemp, castor, tea, Garfield (Yamanashi Prefecture) and Jiyi oranges. Fisheries and salt industry have also developed. Fish markets can be seen everywhere. Yantian has been used on a large scale, replacing the original salt-making method of burning seaweed. In terms of handicraft production, the paper industry in MINO, Bomo, Qian Yue, Madan, Zanqi, Yamato and other places, the pottery industry in Hanoi, Beiqian and Zhangwei, the brewing industry in Hanoi, Yamato, Shejin and Kyoto, the oil production industry in mountain cities and the salt industry along the coast of the inland sea are all famous. China local paint industry is also very famous. The metal casting industry centered on Hanoi, Yamato, Sagami and Kyoto and the textile industry centered on Kaga, Danhou, MINO, Zhang Wei and Liu Chang are particularly prominent. As a large number of Japanese textile artisans crossed China for technical exchanges in the Ming Dynasty, emerging cities such as Yamaguchi, Hakata and Jiejie began to produce high-grade silk fabrics such as gold thread, satin and crepe, and their products could be comparable to those of China. Japanese velvet production technology is also very high, and its products are well received by the international market. As recorded in China, the textile industry in Zhangzhou imitates Japanese velvet: "The velvet originally came from Japan, but now Zhangzhou weaves it with velvet, and the built-in iron velvet is cut out on the loom, and the clouds are woven by machine, which is almost natural."
Commercial transportation and cities
The development of commodity economy has promoted the prosperity of the market. At that time, the market spread all over the country, from "Sanzhai City" (opened three times a month) to "Liuzhai City" (opened six times a month). Since the last years of Kamakura, it has developed into a special intermediary businessman "Wu Wen", which has been increasing in land and water areas and cities and has great wealth. Some also engage in overseas trade and become big financiers. The number of "seats" (trade associations) of businessmen has increased, especially in economically developed areas, especially in Kyoto, Nara and its surrounding areas. There are more than 80 oil seats, powder seats, wine seats, bean jelly seats, etc. centered on Daijoin in Nara, Xiaofu Temple and Yicheng Hospital. Bashan Qigong, a mountain city, has a huge oil seat, and has the monopoly right of stubble hemp (raw material of lamp oil) and its products in more than 10 countries.
The transportation is developed, especially by sea, and the transportation capacity is strong. The main land and sea trunk lines include crossing the inland sea from China and Shikoku to Hyogo, and then returning to Tokugawa to Kyoto and Nara. There is a route from Hokuriku to Zhongjing, through Lake Biwa to Otsu and Kyoto. Another is to land in Sangming, Yi Shi, along the coast of Tokaido, and then go to Kyoto from Jiangtong.
Cities all over the country are developing. In addition to some old political and religious centers, such as Kyoto, Nara and Kamakura, which continue to develop into commercial and industrial cities, there are also some emerging cities. Some are port cities developed in ports and transportation hubs. The famous ones are the starting point of foreign air routes (He Quanguo), Hyogo (Shejin), Kobayashi (Wakayama) and Sakamoto (near the river) on the northern shore of Seto Inland Sea, and Otsu (near the river) along Lake Biwako, as well as "Shimonomachi", which is produced in mountainous areas and castles that protect famous places, as well as plains near convenient residences. Guarding more and more family officials and other consumer classes, as well as major industrialists and commercial residents here. This kind of city is particularly common in the late Muromachi period, and the most typical ones are Yamaguchi (Otani City) and Shizuoka (now Kawaguchi City). There is also the "front town" in front of the temple fair represented by Yamada Yuji (Mie Prefecture). Businessmen who have settled in cities have been called "machi people" since the end of Kamakura era. /kloc-Japanese cities in the 0 th and 5 th centuries are still under the rule of the guardian name.
Zhuzixue
Zhu's learning was introduced to Japan in Kamakura era. At first, two Buddhist monks (1 166- 1227) and Yuaner (1202- 1280) brought Zhu to Japan. After Yuan II, there were other eminent monks in Song Dynasty, such as Lanxi Daolong, Wuxue Zuyuan and Yuan Dynasty, who actively spread Zhuzi studies in Japan. In the Kamakura era, Zhuzi was not studied as an independent science, but was introduced into Japan as an accessory of Zen. It is only an auxiliary means of Zen monks' cultural education and spreading Zen, which is mainly popular among Zen monks and stays in the degree of amateur study. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties (1333- 1392), the situation was different. Tang Yi's Zhou Xin (A.D. 1325- A.D. 1388) talked about the differences between the old and new annotations from the value of the four books, taking Confucianism as the political and political reference, and teaching the Doctrine of the Mean, The University and The Analects of Confucius. He told Iman that people who govern the country must have morality, integrity and self-cultivation. After Tang Yi, Fang Xiu of Qiyang and his disciples Zhang Yun Yiqing and Ao Zhihui vigorously promoted Zhuzi studies, and gained a firm foothold not only in Kanto, but also in Japan. After the failure of "cultivating martial arts and rejuvenating the country", Zhu was used by the rulers of the Southern Dynasties as an ideological weapon against the Muromachi shogunate and the royal family of the Northern Dynasties. In the historical work The Orthodox Records of Shenzong, covering the period from "Bladen" to the Southern Dynasties' accession to the throne (A.D. 134 1), the author Kita imitated the purpose of Zhu's Zi Zhi Tong Jian, vigorously advocated the theory of justice and birthright, and criticized the "rebels and thieves". According to Zhu's idealistic theory of Qi, he explained the long-standing myths such as "the birth of the earth" and "the appearance of gods", endowed the philosophical theory with the so-called "the country has a long history" and "the throne is sacred", and discussed the inheritance of the imperial system through the so-called "artifact giving and receiving" theory, which provided a basis for the orthodoxy of the Southern Dynasties. The True Story of Jade Emperor greatly developed the idea of the divine kingdom and laid the foundation for the unique theory of the so-called "divine kingdom and state" in Japan. As we all know, this "national system theory" became the ideological weapon of Japanese militarism to enslave people and invade after Meiji.
Folk literature and art
The greatest achievements of folk literature and art creation are Nenglie and Madness as dramas and Ballads and Madness as operas. "Nenglie" is a musical with "Nenglie" (a mask of Nenglie), which consists of ballads, dances and accompaniment, and is accompanied by ballads. The predecessor of "Nenglie" is the popular ape music and Tian music, which originated in March of the Tang Dynasty in China. In the Kamakura era, it used song and dance music and gradually became a literary form of drama. In the early Muromachi period, "Nenglie" became a unique literary form through the efforts of Kanami, a famous actor in Yamato's world view drama, especially his son Simi (1363- 1443). Simi also unified scattered folk art, collected Japanese songs and dances at that time, and created Japanese dramas. His Flower Drum Book is the earliest theoretical work of drama art in Japan, which laid the theoretical foundation of Japanese national art, and his Will to Write a Book is the earliest work of drama creation method in Japan. There are at least 90 kinds of "ballads" written in his life, some of which are historical stories and legends, praising brave warriors and monks and being appreciated by ashikaga yoshimitsu and warriors. But many of them exposed social contradictions, and some of them are still being staged today.
At that time, the performance of "Crazy Talk" was always interspersed between classes of the drama. If Nenglie belongs to a samurai drama to a great extent, then Nenglie is an excellent folk literature and art, and more than 300 pieces of Nenglie are spoken at that time, with lively performances. The content is a sharp criticism and bitter satire of the ruling class figures at that time, exposing the ugly phenomenon of the society at that time. The development of "Nenglie" and "Crazy Talk" prepared the conditions for the birth of "Kabuki" and "humanoid pure glass".
literature and art
The achievements of aristocratic literature in Muromachi era were not great, except that some aristocratic scholars completed the manuscripts and notes of some classic works such as The Book of Japan, Ye Ji and Tale of Genji. At this time, the Zen monk's literature on the Five Mountains was very prosperous. There are five mountains in Kyoto and five mountains in Kamakura. In A.D. 1386, ashikaga yoshimitsu reorganized the system of Five Mountains and placed nanzenji in the Five Mountains. The five mountains in Kyoto are Tianlong Temple, Suoguo Temple, Jianning Temple, Dongfu Temple and Wanjushi. The five mountains in Kamakura were Jianchang Temple, Yuanjue Temple, Shoufu Temple, Jingzhi Temple and Miao Jing Temple. Monks in Wushan here are all learning Chinese. When they enter the mountain, they have to take a Chinese test, and they can become monks only after passing. Therefore, they are well versed in China literature and have written many China poems, diaries, quotations and articles. There are many outstanding writers, such as Tiger Guan Shidong and Tang Yi Zhou Xin. Apart from Wushan Han literature, Taiping Ji is more valuable in samurai literature. This is a historical novel, which describes the 50-year-long war history between "Building a Strong Military" and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and reflects the social outlook and the dynamics and thoughts of various classes at that time.
With the growing of farmers and citizens, folk literature appeared, and new creative forms appeared, such as short stories and "Lian Ge", which was later called "grass at home". Some of them are based on folk stories and legends, and some are anthropomorphic fairy tales of birds, animals, insects, fish and plants, all of which have a strong flavor of life and strong popularity. "Couplet" is a poetic genre in which several people and a dozen people constantly create couplets in the internet. This genre, which originated from two people chanting a song from sentence to sentence, appeared in Heian period and developed into 50 sentences of 100 sentence in Kamakura period, and began to break the monopoly of nobles and spread to warriors and people. Muromachi became independent from chorus in the early stage, forming a chorus craze among the people, which was used to praise their own labor and express their joy at the victory of the ruling class struggle. /kloc-In the mid-4th century, two good foundations compiled an excellent "Collection of Practice Songs-Gu Jiu Ji Bo", which laid the foundation for the prosperity of the collection of practice songs.
The remarkable feature of painting art in this period is that "Dahe painting" is declining day by day, while ink painting imitating the painting style of Song and Yuan Dynasties is popular. Mountain monk Ruzhuo and his disciples laid the foundation of Japanese ink painting, while their disciples and Yang perfected Japanese ink painting. Sesshū Tōyō had a bright learning journey, and he learned ink splashing techniques from the famous China painters Li Yuhe and Zhang Yousheng at that time. His outstanding achievement is that he absorbed the advantages of China's painting, combined with the thoughts and feelings of the Japanese people, and created his own national style on the basis of inheriting and carrying forward the excellent tradition of national painting, enriching the cultural connotation of Japan. Therefore, it is respected by the Japanese people and is known as the "sage of painting in ancient and modern times". His ink paintings have a wide range of themes, including exquisite landscape paintings, vivid black paintings and realistic portraits. His main works are Yu Yushan, Landscape Scroll (52 feet) and Landscape Map of Four Seasons.
The most famous building is the Golden Pavilion Temple built by ashikaga yoshimitsu in 1397. It is a three-story pavilion built near the pool, and its style takes the form of combination, that is, the first floor is a sleeping hall, the second floor is a Buddhist temple, and the third floor is a Buddhist temple. This combination is manifested in the combination of public culture and martial culture, and the unity of Ping 'an culture and Kamakura culture. Agricultural mining handicraft industry
Under the guidance of the policy of enriching the people, celebrities are vigorously developing production. They encourage farmers to explore new fields and devote themselves to the construction of large-scale water conservancy projects and the preparation of irrigation systems. The basic elimination of manor system and the simplification of complicated land ownership relations make it possible for sub-countries to regulate water conservancy on a large scale in a planned way. Takeda Shingen organized manpower to build the Kewuchuan Dam (Xinxuan Dam) and Vietnam assisted China in harnessing the Eternal River, which are very famous. With the development of Xintian and water conservancy, many fragile low-lying areas have become high-yield paddy fields, and the cultivated land area has greatly increased. Manure and human excrement and urine are more widely used, and a lot of grass can be mowed to accumulate fertilizer. In addition to rice-wheat rotation, dry land crops also implement wheat-soybean rotation and wheat-wheat rotation. Subsequently, the output per unit area continued to increase. In advanced areas, the rice yield per crop (992 square meters) is as high as 3 stones. The cash crop production in the previous period has spread all over the country. Large-scale vegetable production has also begun in the suburbs of the city to meet the needs of the city. Tea used to be grown only in Uji area, but now it is grown in Yamato, Danbo, Iga, Yi Shi, Suruga, Musashi and other countries. Due to the progress of agricultural technology, cotton planting has also begun, spreading rapidly from the Three Rivers to all parts of the country, increasing the sources of people's clothing raw materials. The cultivation of new crops such as tobacco, sugarcane and sweet potato has also been widely developed.
Mines are very important for obtaining money and raw materials for weapons, so celebrities are also very keen on developing mines. At that time, mining and smelting technology had been significantly improved. Copper mine changed from open pit mining to tunnel mining. Since 1930s, advanced China soot blowing method has been used in silver smelting. Gold is not only extracted from placer gold, but also from ore, and the output is greatly increased. Aoyu's gold mine is Ma's silver mine, but Ma's, Beiqian's, Beizhong's and Misa's copper mines, especially the famous Garfield gold mine run by Zhong, Ni Zi and Mao Li, are all famous. The development of these three mineral deposits created conditions for the later coin casting. In addition, the development of mercury in Yi Shi and sulfur in the South China Sea is also very important. Mercury, sulfur, gold and copper are all important exports to China.
Due to the increase of domestic demand and trade with Ming, the development of handicraft industry is also amazing. The development of cotton production led to the emergence of cotton textile industry and handicraft industry. The popularization of tea planting has led to the expansion of porcelain production. A new production center has appeared in Kyoto, producing high-grade spun silk products. The production of advanced textiles in Xicheng District (West Array) of Kyoto is famous all over the country. In the metal industry, based on the requirements of famous products and the needs of trade with the Ming Dynasty, the manufacture of swords was very developed, and the production of guns began with the introduction of guns, but the production of agricultural tools, handicraft tools and daily necessities is still of great significance. Due to the increasing demand for farm tools, full-time forging and casting craftsmen have appeared in towns and villages all over the country. These craftsmen got rid of the shackles of the manor owners, owned their own workshops and tools, or accepted social orders and charged processing fees, or produced goods for sale in the market.
Developed commodity economy
The number of fairs held in rural areas has increased. Six to nine times a month. In cities, daily fairs have become a common phenomenon, with dozens of commodities on display, including various agricultural products and handicrafts; In cities, special markets have also been established, such as the classic fish market, the rice market in Kyoto and the horse market in Nara. The prosperity of the market shows the further development of division of labor and commodity economy on the basis of the extensive development of social productive forces in the16th century.
The latter period of Muromachi was also a period of great development of Japanese overseas trade. /kloc-In the first half of the 6th century, the survey trade between Japan and Ming Dynasty (the trade of merchant ships issued by Ming Dynasty to cooperate with land titles) was unprecedentedly prosperous. From the middle of16th century, Japan began to trade with European and Southeast Asian countries. Some big names, businessmen and temples are directly involved in foreign trade. The great development of overseas trade has effectively promoted the separation of handicraft industry and agriculture, the emergence of new handicraft production departments and the development of commodity and currency relations, and promoted the division of labor in society.
All these constitute the basic factors for the great development of Japanese cities in the late Muromachi period. Kyoto, which almost became a wilderness during the Ren Ying Uprising, prospered again as a commercial and industrial center after the Uprising, with an estimated population of about 200,000. In the 6th century, Zhangjiajie and Hakata developed rapidly as trade bases with China, Korea, Ryukyu and the South China Sea. Xiao Bin, Dunhe, Otsu, Otsu, Hyogo, Shimosaki and Otsu have developed into port cities and achieved prosperity since the previous period. In some cities, businessmen tend to be independent. Cities and towns, which used to refer only to business districts, have gradually taken on the color of social organizations. Residents living here, mainly businessmen and industrialists, are called townspeople ("townspeople"). They set up an autonomous organization "Bi" in the town to exercise autonomy.
With the retainer group concentrated under the famous city, celebrities also tried to gradually concentrate businessmen and industrialists here. In order to develop their industries, many famous brands abolished the privileged guild seats that hindered the free activities of the commercial industry, and opened the so-called "music market" and "music seats" markets, exempting fair taxes and commercial taxes. It also abolished checkpoints everywhere, and Chengxiamachi prospered as the political and economic center of the country. For economic and military purposes, celebrities restored the long-abandoned post horse system and reorganized the avenue with the famous Shimonomachi as the center. Setting up post stations and post horses in each major Tianjin facilitates domestic land transportation and contributes to the development of commodity economy.
The emergence of autonomous cities
Although Kyoto did not implement urban autonomy after the "Ren Ying Rebellion", the market towns such as Gion, Shimizu and Kitano were managed by four people from each town. The Gion Festival held by Gion-machi people not only strengthened their unity, but also showed their wealth. This kind of citizen autonomy is a new trend of cities in the late Muromachi era.
The most representative urban autonomy is the border city. As the destination of Seto inland sea route, the border was not as important as Shimosaki and Hyogo at first. However, after the Ren Ying Uprising, Hosokawa Morihiro used this place as a base for measurement and trade, so it suddenly prospered. Then Hao San also took this place as a stronghold and became the largest seaport city. The world is also famous for the origin of swords, silks and lacquerware. After the introduction of guns, it became more important as the center of gun manufacturing. Jieyuan was originally a manor in Kyoto Temple, and its autonomy can be traced back to the beginning of15th century. The villagers collectively paid tribute to the manor lords every year ("people invited"). By the end of 15, there was a parliament composed of door merchants and urban autonomy. /kloc-in the middle of the 0/6th century, this parliament had 36 members, called "36 people". Every month, three of them take turns to manage the municipal administration, adjudicate lawsuits and punish offenders. The city is surrounded by a moat on three sides and has its own armed forces. A European Catholic missionary who came to the world during this period reported to the government that the world was rich, peaceful and autonomous, just like the free city of Chanis in Italy. At that time, the world population had exceeded 50 thousand; Lu Yong 1 1 year (A.D. 1568), Nobunaga ordered the world to hand over 30,000 yuan (military gold), but the world refused to hand it over. When Nobunaga tried to conquer by force, the Parliament sent a letter to Ye Ping, another autonomous city, calling for joint resistance by force. This move is of great significance. As Renwulang pointed out, it proves that Japan "even has the seeds of modern free cities and institutional alliances."
In addition to peace, Bodo and Sang Ming also belonged to autonomous cities before the construction of Shi Yi. However, such cities are rare, far less than those in medieval Europe. More cities enjoy only partial autonomy, such as Kyoto. /kloc-in the 6th century, with the great development of cities, the commercial bourgeoisie grew up and became an important force to eliminate feudal separatism and establish a unified centralized country.
literature and art
The literature in Muramachi's later period is still represented by "Yu Jia Caozi" and "Lian Ge" rooted in people's life, and the new folk arts "Nenglie" and "Crazy Talk" are also developing. There are more than 500 short stories belonging to "Noguchi Kusako" during the Muromachi period, and 23 short stories were edited and published during the Edo period. The development of couplet reached its peak. Zong Di (A.D.1421-A.D. 1502) compiled poems and songs such as "Water without Otter Trilogy" and "Newly Written Collection of Nine Waves of Mushrooms", which established the so-called gentle and decent style of the Lotus Pavilion and improved its artistry, but lost its popularity and stuck to the routine. In order to remedy it, rhyme (humor, funny meaning) has arisen. Yamazaki Zongjian (A.D. 1465- A.D. 1553) wrote a new collection of dogs and Tsukuba, which is regarded as the ancestor of chorus.
In music, next to Xie Mi, Yin Ami is regarded as an excellent performer. He strives for perfection on the basis of observing the world and Simi's achievements. In addition to Guanyin constellation, Zen bamboo and Zen wind also appeared in Jinchun constellation, and it is said that both of them are as good as Yin Ami's material selection. The chaos in the year of Yingren once led to the decline of ape music, but later it advanced by leaps and bounds. Although it lost the protector of the shogunate, it gained the support of local warriors and ordinary people in the city. At the end of 12, Pingjia pipa was more popular at this time. "Lucky Dance" and "Ancient Clear Glass" are also popular. Lucky dance is a kind of musical dance, which was created by Tao Jing Xiao Wan in the 5th century/kloc-0. With the theme of war and love, it is deeply loved by warriors. Jing Liuli is a rap art accompanied by strings. Its name comes from the love story between Yuan Yijing and Jing Liu Liji, and it developed into the modern Jing Liuli in the early Edo period. Folk dances with decorations and makeup are also very popular. The bonsai dance held on July 15 of the lunar calendar is particularly popular. Minor is also popular. In A.D. 15 18, there were more than 300 such collections of folk tunes.
In painting, Tosa Hiroshin (1434- 1525) applied the techniques of Chinese painting to Yamato painting, developed beautiful traditional techniques and revived Yamato painting. Jian Ye Zhengxin (1454- 1530) also developed Yamato painting with China's ink painting technique, and served as the court painter of the shogunate for Ashikaga Yoshimasa and Monk Yi. His son Keno Yuanxin (A.D. 1476- A.D. 1559) inherited his father's style and embodied the painting style of Kano School. His posthumous works include Flowers and Birds by the Sea (A.D. 15 13) and Eight Scenes of Xiaoxiang in the East China Sea.
Architecturally, Dongshan Villa was built in Ashikaga Yoshimasa 15 (A.D. 1483), in which the Silver Pavilion is as luxurious as the Golden Pavilion built by Yiman (A.D. 1397). The architectural style adopts the style of academy, and the Buddhist temple is combined with the folk houses to achieve harmony with the garden. Yin Ge's subsidiary buildings, Dongqiutang and Tongren Zhai, have exquisite architectural techniques, symbolizing the elegant taste of tea ceremony. In terms of craft, Koichi Goto (1440- 15 12) appeared, and he was good at metal craft carving and lacquerware manufacturing of swords.
Medical science
In Muramachi era, Japanese medicine developed continuously by absorbing China's medical achievements and summing up its own experience. In Zhengping 17 (A.D. 1362), the famous medical scientist monk Lin You wrote the medical work Futian Fang. This book not only summarizes Chinese medicine in the Jin, Yuan and Ming Dynasties, but also affirms Japanese medical experience, classifies diseases into 12, creatively puts forward the method of writing medical books in the order of etiology, symptoms, diagnosis, syndrome differentiation, prognosis and treatment, and especially discusses the necessity of studying past diseases. Shi Shengxi's Diversity of Five Bodies (A.D. 1369) has the same tendency. At this time, the Chinese used in medical books is mostly "harmony training", which liberates readers from the difficult Chinese original text. This provides favorable conditions for the development of Japanese scientific research.
In the late Muromachi period, many Japanese medical scientists went to China to exchange medical achievements in the Ming Dynasty. Tian Sanxi (1494-1465-1537) advocated pear and bamboo medicine (medicine in Li Dongyuan and Zhu Danxi) after returning to China in1494. This school thinks that the disease originates from "exogenous" and "internal injury", so it avoids using cold medicine in treatment, and gives priority to mild medicine. Manase Dosan, a disciple of Sanxi, wrote Awakening Collection (A.D. 1574), and combined with Japanese reality, developed the theory of pear and bamboo, making it popular all over the country. Medical scientist and herbalist Yoshida Zonggui and acupuncture expert Jin Zhizhong are also famous. Both of them practiced medicine in the Ming Dynasty, and their medical skills won the praise of medical experts in China. In the Ming Dynasty, some China medical scientists moved to Japan, such as Chen Zutian and Guang Zhi, which made beneficial contributions to the development of Japanese medicine.